The psychedelic world is evolving quickly, attracting individuals from healthcare, therapy, wellness, and beyond. In an era marked by global mental health crises, psychedelics are evolving from their experimental and ceremonial roots into a respected field, offering diverse entry points and opportunities. Despite recent challenges like regulatory barriers and public misconceptions, the field continues to mature, driven by passion, growing public interest, and a call for modernization of regulations and better standards of care.
We created the Psychedelics at Work Report: Mapping the Path of the Field to offer a realistic and predictive view of the field and where it’s heading, as told by 751 people actively working in it or preparing to get involved. Written in collaboration with experts across 13 diverse work areas, it’s a snapshot that reveals key insights into the workforce shaping the future of psychedelics. **Download your copy below**
Gain insights on the field of psychedelics in this 57-page special report. Download your complimentary copy below.
Why We Created Psychedelics At Work
To map the current landscape of the psychedelic field – including the underground – and provide an in-depth look at who is contributing to its growth and evolution.
To guide current and aspiring professionals with actionable insights into career opportunities, pathways, and necessary skills within psychedelics.
To highlight both the challenges and opportunities the field faces, helping readers make informed decisions.
To advocate for broader inclusion and diversity in the field, spotlighting areas for improvement.
To empower our community with a realistic and predictive understanding of where the psychedelic field is headed, based on the voices of those actively involved.
Sample Insights
A Maturing Sector: Over 50% of respondents joined the field in the past five years, signalling rapid growth and professionalization.
Emphasis on Education: 80% of respondents have completed formal psychedelic-specific training, reinforcing the value of dedicated learning for career advancement.
Diverse Pathways: 56% entered the field by starting their own practices or businesses, illustrating the field’s embrace of entrepreneurial and non-traditional backgrounds.
A Response to Urgency: 69% of respondents view traditional mental health systems as limited, emphasizing the need for innovative approaches and solutions that psychedelics may offer.
Call for Greater Inclusivity: 59% of respondents feel the industry needs to be more inclusive, highlighting a need to broaden diversity and equity efforts.
Who Is This Report For?
This report is ideal for those already engaged in psychedelics, media covering the field, healthcare professionals exploring new therapeutic tools, wellness practitioners considering integrating psychedelics in practice, and individuals intrigued by a career shift into this dynamic world. It provides valuable insights for anyone interested in understanding the landscape of the psychedelic workforce and its future potential.
Download Your Free Copy of Psychedelics at Work
In the Psychedelics at Work Report, you’ll find 57 pages of insights, data, and key findings that reveal who is working in psychedelics, how they are making a difference, and the opportunities that lie ahead. Simply enter your information below, and we’ll send it right to your inbox.
Faced with health challenges that traditional treatments often fail to remedy, veterans are increasingly turning to psychedelics for help. Their stories of trauma and healing help humanize their experiences, reduce stigma, and foster essential conversations that broaden acceptance and understanding of how psychedelics can support them.
While over 7,000 U.S. service members have died in combat since 9/11, more than 30,000 veterans and active-duty soldiers have taken their own lives during the same period. Some estimates suggest this number could be significantly higher, reaching upwards of 150,000. This staggering statistic highlights a mental health crisis, one in which veterans face PTSD, depression, chronic pain, insomnia, and other challenges at alarming rates. Many veterans feel abandoned by traditional therapies that often provide only temporary relief.
With increased advocacy and a surge in scientific support, psychedelic-assisted treatments have emerged as a promising pathway for veterans seeking more comprehensive recovery from trauma.
Heroic Hearts Project: Promoting Psychedelic Literacy and Support for Veterans
After leaving combat, former Army Ranger Jesse Gould struggled with severe PTSD. He left his career as an investment banker, sold his belongings, and journeyed around the world in an attempt to find a new way forward.
After an ayahuasca retreat in Peru, Gould says he – finally – found relief from his PTSD symptoms. Invigorated by his experience and the relief he found in plant medicine, Gould founded Heroic Hearts Project, a nonprofit dedicated to supporting veterans and their families in overcoming the impacts of PTSD and military trauma.
“I was at my lowest point, feeling disconnected and hopeless,” Gould told Psychedelics Today. “As my own pain began to lift, I knew I couldn’t keep this journey to myself.”
“When veterans have these big psychedelic experiences during a retreat, no matter what, they will have lasting changes,” Gould explains. “They gain new perspectives on how they view themselves and the world.”
Bridging the Psychedelic Knowledge Gap for Veterans
Ensuring veterans have not only have access to a community, but that they’re armed with a strong foundation of psychedelic therapy, integration, and risk reduction is crucial to ensuring their relief is durable, says author and educator Matt Zemon MSc.
A new book, The Veteran’s Guide to Psychedelics, written by Zemon in collaboration with Heroic Hearts and clinically reviewed by Ken Weingardt, PhD, was recently published to help bridge this critical knowledge gap. Gould and Zemon kicked off the project after Gould noticed the lack of comprehensive publications tailored for veterans exploring psychedelics.
The clinically reviewed book was designed to equip veterans with knowledge of safe, responsible, and therapeutic psychedelic use, offering insights into a new frontier of mental health care that emphasizes key principles veterans need to understand when exploring psychedelic options responsibly.
Understanding the Challenges and Potential of Psychedelics for Veterans
“For years, like most clinicians, I relied on conventional treatments… but despite our best efforts, the standard approaches often fell short,” he explains.
This realization led him to explore psychedelic-assisted treatments, which he views as potentially transformative for veteran mental health care.
With nearly 40 years in military medicine, including combat experience and public health expertise, Koffman has seen firsthand the limitations of traditional approaches. He believes that psychedelics – particularly those promoting neuroplasticity – can address trauma in ways conventional methods cannot. According to him, these therapies may “not just heal hidden wounds, but by mending the accompanying soul wounds, and save countless families.”
Koffman emphasizes the importance of health literacy for veterans: “It’s about knowing what questions to ask, recognizing the risks, and understanding the potential benefits.”
For him, informed preparation and responsible use are essential for veterans to move from crisis to genuine transformation and long-term wellness.
The Power of Openly Sharing Veteran Stories
According to Zemon, openly sharing stories is a powerful force for fostering understanding and encouraging other vets to explore new avenues of healing. Many veterans who have turned to psychedelics describe their experiences as life-changing, inspiring fellow veterans to consider new possibilities for their own recovery.
Tom Satterly, Delta Force veteran and co-founder of All Secure Foundation, says psychedelics allowed him to confront trauma in ways conventional therapies could not.
“These treatments have allowed me to break through pain that no other method could touch,” Satterly said.
Steve Keefer, a veteran of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, says his perspective evolved through sacred ceremonies supported by community. “I viewed life as a series of battles, but this attitude strained relationships and led to negativity. Through healing ceremonies, I’ve found fulfillment, peace, and healthier relationships. I’m more in service to others now than I ever was in uniform.”
Navigating Psychedelic Risks: Safety and Responsibility for Veterans
“Veterans need a clear understanding of the risks, as well as a strong foundation in preparation, set, setting, and integration – each essential for veterans who choose this path to navigate it successfully,” Zemon said.
Zemon advocates for a proactive approach, encouraging veterans to balance both potential benefits and risks in considering psychedelic-assisted healing.
“While psychedelics offer new possibilities for healing, they must be approached with caution and preparation,” Koffman adds.
The conversation around psychedelics in veteran mental health is evolving, and at its core is an urgent need for psychedelic literacy and supportive resources. Bridging this knowledge gap with science, safety, and empathy equips veterans with the guidance they need. By understanding the critical elements of psychedelic therapy and the organizations that facilitate access, veterans can embark on a healing journey that addresses trauma holistically and cultivates renewed hope.
Cannabis is not typically regarded as a psychedelic, but scientific evidence tells us it should be.
Abundant anecdotal evidence of cannabis’ therapeutic applications, explored in Part One of this series, makes it hard to deny its potential as a powerful plant medicine, used similarly to psilocybin and MDMA in clinical and ceremonial settings.
But new science around the flavorant indole found in cannabis (and many other entheogens) may have significant implications for reclassifying the plant as, indeed, psychedelic.
It’s not just indole; there’s more psychedelic chemistry at play within cannabis regarding what defines a psychedelic substance. Is indole a missing key to classify cannabis as a psychedelic? Which drug class does cannabis belong to now? Do people hallucinate from cannabis, and are hallucinogens the same as psychedelics? What defines a psychedelic, and how would cannabis scientifically fit into that category?
Cannabis is not traditionally regarded as a psychedelic, although it can be a potent psychedelic when certain variables align. Factors like the individual’s set and setting, tolerance, and cannabis type can determine whether the experience is typical, or, indeed, psychedelic.
There are books, online courses, ceremonial practices, and legitimate research all dedicated to the psychedelic cannabis experience. I’ve had many psychedelic experiences with cannabis that range from subtle effects, to experiences comparable with DMT trips. I’ve also witnessed people experiencing cannabis as if it were ayahuasca. However, these psychedelic-like effects arising from cannabis use are rare, because cannabis in all its varieties (and the people who consume it) are wildly diverse.
However, extreme psychedelic experiences are not necessary to deem cannabis psychedelic. In fact, cannabis has more multifaceted psychedelic chemistry than one might think. Before diving into the chemistry, let’s evaluate how cannabis is classified right now.
The Current Classification of Cannabis
Cannabis is one of the most complex, widely consumed drugs due to its differentiated psychoactive chemistry, and classifying it is complicated. Although a drug class typically defines the type of drug it is, both NIDA and the WHO recently removed their authoritative online resources regarding the drug class cannabis falls within. Others, such as The Discovery Institute and IACP classify cannabis in its own drug class, which makes sense given its diversity.
All at once, cannabis bears depressant and sedative properties, along with stimulating attributes, and psychedelic or hallucinatory potential. Depending on the strain (of which there are thousands) and the tolerance and the unique biochemistry of the individual consuming it, the effects of the plant can vary wildly.
Understanding Psychedelics vs. Hallucinogens. Where Does Cannabis Fit?
To determine if cannabis is a psychedelic, it is essential to understand what a psychedelic is and how it may differ from a purely hallucinogenic experience.
Psychedelics are a class of psychoactive substances that primarily influence the brain by altering perception, mood, and cognitive processes. While they are known for inducing hallucinations, not all hallucinogens are classified as psychedelics. The specific characteristics that define a psychedelic drug include:
Mechanism of Action: Psychedelics primarily exert their effects by acting on serotonin receptors, especially the 5-HT2A receptor. This interaction is crucial for the psychedelic experience. Classic psychedelics such as LSD, psilocybin, and DMT fall into this category.
Subjective Effects or Altered Perceptions: Psychedelics can profoundly alter sensory perception, leading to vivid visual and auditory hallucinations, synesthesia (blending of senses), and intensified colors and patterns.
Cognitive and Emotional Effects: Users often report altered thought processes, enhanced introspection, and a sense of connectedness. There can be profound emotional changes, ranging from euphoria to introspective insight.
Mystical Experiences: Many users describe experiences of unity, transcendence, and a sense of encountering a greater reality or consciousness.
Non-Toxic and Low Addiction Potential: Classic psychedelics are generally non-toxic and do not lead to physical dependence or addiction. While they can cause psychological distress or trigger latent mental health issues in susceptible individuals, their physical safety margin is considered high compared to many other psychoactive substances.
Distinct Pharmacological and Neurobiological Effects: Ego dissolution, where the user’s sense of self is temporarily diminished or dissolved, is a defining characteristic of psychedelics. This is less common with other hallucinogens.
Other natural plant-based hallucinogens that are not psychedelic include dissociatives and deliriants. Substances like Salvia Divinorum, Datura, Brugmansia, and Mandrake produce hallucinations, but primarily, cause a sense of detachment from reality and one’s body rather than the profound sensory and emotional alterations typical of psychedelics. Experiences from these plants are often characterized by confusion, a lack of insight, and a greater risk of dangerous behaviors. They can also be so toxic that they can become lethal, unlike plant-based psychedelics, which are generally non-toxic.
Is Cannabis a Psychedelic or a Hallucinogen?
Simply, cannabis can be both (though it is typically neither). I’ve experienced both minor and major hallucinations from cannabis that were not inherently psychedelic, including hearing and feeling my phone ringing when it’s silent, seeing plants come alive, and movement from inanimate objects. Sounds and colors may be enhanced, and some visual distortions may occur, all of which are forms of hallucinations, but not necessarily psychedelic experiences.
As a researcher, educator, expert witness, and daily cannabis consumer for over 25 years, I’ve concluded that cannabis is also a psychedelic, not just a hallucinogen.
Factors Influencing the Psychedelic Experience of Cannabis
Achieving a true psychedelic state with cannabis depends on both experiential and scientific factors. Key elements include tolerance, the user’s intention, the specific strain of cannabis, its chemical composition, and how we categorize what makes a substance psychedelic. Each of these factors works together to shape the depth and nature of the experience, highlighting the complex interplay between personal mindset, biological response, and the characteristics of the cannabis used.
Tolerance: Cannabis tends to be more intense and psychedelic when you have a low tolerance to it. Many people report experiencing stronger, more hallucinatory effects when they first used cannabis. Taking a tolerance break can help recreate these experiences.
Intention: Structured intention plays a key role in enhancing cannabis’ psychedelic effects. Even with high tolerance, combining cannabis with meditation and ceremony can lead to intense experiences similar to other psychedelics. Mindfulness and a proper set and setting are crucial.
Introducing Indole: The Missing Psychedelic Cannabis Link
Indole is the core structural group of psychedelic tryptamines such as DMT, LSD, and psilocybin-bearing mushrooms, and surprise: it’s commonly found in cannabis, too.
Since indole is found in many cannabis strains, some might speculate whether it contributes to cannabis being psychedelic. Indole itself doesn’t cause psychedelic effects. It’s a foundational structure that forms part of many important compounds. It serves as a core structure for many biologically active compounds, including neurotransmitters like serotonin and several psychedelics.
However, indole serves as a scaffold that, when modified with specific functional groups, can interact with brain receptors to produce psychedelic effects. This is important because these receptors are linked to mood, perception, and classic psychedelic experiences.
This is where the complex chemistry of cannabis plays a role in defining what, indeed, constitutes a substance as psychedelic.
Indole is found in many naturally occurring psychedelics, such as 5-MeO-DMT and 5-HO-DMT, present in various plants and toad venoms. Ibogaine, which contains indole, is found in the root bark of the African plant Tabernanthe iboga. The psychedelic compounds harmine and harmaline, also containing indole, are found in the Banisteriopsis caapi vine, known as ayahuasca. With four psychedelic compounds containing indole within the brew of ayahuasca, it is evident that ayahuasca deserves to be listed among psychedelic indole-containing substances. Humans (including you) produce N,N-DMT, cannabinoids, and indole simultaneously.
Previous research has focused on indole, primarily, as an aromatic compound. However, further research is needed to fully understand the importance of indole beyond the aroma of cannabis alone.
“Indole is interesting for reasons far beyond the aroma. The indole structure is the core structure of many biologically important compounds within plants, humans, and animals alike. It is the key component of both tryptophan and melatonin, two important compounds found in the human body. It is also the main structural group of psychedelic tryptamines such as psilocybin, DMT, and LSD,” reports Abstrax Tech.
Research suggests the psychotropic potential of indoles is significant. Although phenethylamines primarily exert their effects through the activation of 5-HT2A receptors, indoleamines can have a significant behavioral component mediated by activation of similar 5-HT1A receptors.
While indole itself is not responsible for directly inducing psychedelic effects, its presence as a core chemical structure in both cannabis and traditional psychedelics hints at the deeper biochemical connections between these substances. The indole structure serves as a foundation for compounds that can influence serotonin receptors and other pathways linked to altered states of consciousness. As we continue to unravel the complex chemistry of cannabis, it’s possible that the full psychedelic potential of indole-containing compounds within the plant may reveal itself, bridging the gap between cannabis and classical psychedelics in ways we are only beginning to understand.
Where Does THC Fit In?
Recent studies suggest that THC, a non-selective cannabinoid receptor agonist, can upregulate 5-HT2A receptors, similar to classic psychedelics. High doses of THC, like those in concentrates like shatter or diamonds, can produce LSD-like effects, including hallucinations. Dr. Ethan Russo supports the idea that THC is hallucinogenic, while CBD counters these effects.
Where Does CBD Fit In?
CBD, unlike THC, binds to the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, which mediates psychedelic experiences like those from LSD or mescaline. Though THC does not bind directly to 5-HT2A, it activates CB1 receptors, which form complexes with 5-HT2A. This interplay may contribute to cannabis’s psychedelic effects.
Changing the Narrative Through Scientific Evidence
Cannabis is not currently regarded as a psychedelic in the mainstream or scientific sense – at least not yet. With substantial scientific and anecdotal evidence already present and more emerging, it wouldn’t be surprising to see cannabis officially classified as a psychedelic.
Barbra Bauer from Psychedelic Science Review states, “Although the psychedelic experience can be highly variable, cannabis and psychedelics, in general, have many effects in common. It’s important to remember that both cannabis and naturally occurring psychedelics like psilocybin mushrooms contain a cocktail of compounds, many of which have not been characterized.”
Natural psychedelics like ayahuasca, mescaline cacti, ibogaine, and magic mushrooms contain multiple compounds working together to produce dynamic effects. Similarly, cannabinoids and terpenes in cannabis interact with serotonin receptors, suggesting it has the potential to be classified as a psychedelic. With the right strain selection and a focused intention, cannabis can create profound sensory, cognitive, and emotional changes, making it potentially indistinguishable from a classic psychedelic experience.
Though Western science may not fully recognize humans as inherently psychedelic, practices like meditation and yoga often result in vivid, altered states without substances. Whether you agree or not, cannabis’s chemical profile and the psychedelic experiences it can induce hint that it may be more psychedelic than previously thought – and perhaps, so are we.
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is poised to ban two psychedelic compounds, DOI and DOC, which could deliver a disastrous blow to psychedelic science and research if successful.
The United States is one of the most advanced societies because our visionaries have the freedom to innovate. That is, unless, we’re talking about drugs. The U.S. government has sweeping blinders on when it comes to researching and developing psychoactive compounds, especially hallucinogenic ones that target the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor.
Nearly every one of these classic psychedelics exists as a Schedule 1 illicit substance. And if the DEA has its way, the last remaining unregulated, DOI and DOC, will suffer the same fate.
A hearing this November, led by attorney Robert Rush Esq., will elucidate what comes next.
What are DOI and DOC, and Why Do They Matter?
DOI (2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine) and DOC (2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine) are relatively obscure synthetic psychedelic compounds in the amphetamine class. They bind to and activate 5-HT2A receptors, just like psilocybin, LSD, and DMT, influencing everything from decision-making and pain-processing to gut function.
One property that makes DOI and DOC unique is their strength – only small dosages are reported to produce 20 to 36-hour trips.
Scientists are so fascinated by DOI and DOC’s mechanism of action that they’ve published nearly 1,000 papers on the substances. DOI, in particular, has been used to map 5-HT2A distribution in the brain and understand the receptor’s functions, including memory, learning, and sensory perception.
“It’s not a stretch to say that the results of my research could inform future therapies in humans,” Ramos told Psychedelics Today.
Ramos explained that scientists today can freely explore these substances for planned experiments or to test spontaneous ideas. However, a Schedule 1 Controlled Substances Act (CSA) designation will strip them of that liberty.
“It will stifle spontaneity and creativity. It will stifle progress,” said Ramos.
The DEA, however, takes a wildly different stance. In December 2023, the notoriously conservative organization initiated its second attempt to brand DOI and DOC as illegal, lacking any medical value and high abuse potential.
If the DEA’s legal effort succeeds, these compounds will be criminalized, and Dr. Ramos and other non-DEA registered scientists must immediately cease research. To restart, they’ll need to undergo a lengthy, cost-prohibitive process seeking institutional, federal, and state approvals, according to Ramos. Unfortunately, most unpublished work will never be see the light of day.
Inside the Fight to Keep DOI and DOC Research Alive
Fortunately, Ramos’ lawyer, Robert Rush, refused to let the DEA proceed without resistance.
“I was nervous that the scheduling would go through, so I connected with people who might be interested parties [in challenging the decision]. I filed the request for a hearing 30 minutes before the post office closed on the deadline. It came together at the last minute,” said Rush.
Rush filed a request on behalf of Ramos and two other academic researchers. Elijah Ullman, a molecular neuropharmacologist, filed a separate request for Students for Sensible Drug Policy (SSDP). David Heldreth, CEO of Panacea Plant Sciences (PPS), also filed a hearing request.
In a recent development, Administrative Law Judge Paul Soeffing denied the DEA’s request to block a number of witnesses, including experts from SSDP and Panacea Plant Sciences (PPS), from testifying at the upcoming hearing. While the judge granted some of the DEA’s motions to exclude specific evidence, this ruling represents a partial victory for the researchers and organizations challenging the ban. However, the judge noted that the relevance of the witnesses’ testimony would still be determined later during the hearing.
The hearing, which starts November 12, will draw prominent witnesses, including psychedelic researchers Dr. David Nutt and Dr. David Nichols, to present the case for DOI and DOC’s utility for developing new therapeutic drugs.
“I have many colleagues who work with these compounds who will testify in the upcoming hearing, and that is only a subset of the research community,” said Ullman, who has been interested in science policy since he was a teen.
Ullman added, “The DEA alleges that DOI and DOC should be placed in Schedule 1 because of their high potential for abuse, but this does not align with over 40 years of data.”
To his point, not one DOI or DOC use report existed before 2005. After 2005, the DEA registered only 45 DOI seizures across local, state, and federal registries throughout a 13-year period. DOC confiscations were more common but mounted to a mere average of 60 annually nationwide. Most reports involved small-scale seizures in forms like blotter paper or powder that do not even register a mention in the DEA’s 2024 National Drug Threat Assessment.
Adverse events linked to DOI and DOC are also scarce. The DEA referenced just three case reports of serious reactions in its Schedule 1 recommendation, including one death related to DOC and caffeine in a 37-year-old with a history of methamphetamine abuse. DOI was not included in any of these reports.
The DEA’s push to classify these substances as Schedule I, despite the small number of incidents, limited evidence of recreational use, and their admission that physical dependence is not an issue, suggests an overreaction rooted in dogma rather than legitimate concern.
“I believe data integrity matters in policy decisions, and since the data does not align with the DEA’s viewpoint that it should be scheduled, it should not be,” said Ullman.
Rush adds that DOI and DOC’s day-long trips make the compounds highly undesirable for personal use.
“No one is seeking a 36-hour psychedelic experience,” said Rush. “There is no illicit drug trade. No one really wants [DOI and DOC], quite frankly.”
No one, except researchers, who assert that the compounds have transformed their understanding of brain function and disease. They’ve helped us learn that serotonin receptors are “much more than a ‘feel-good’ chemical,” according to Ullman.
“There’s incredibly cool data from Charles Nichols’ lab at Louisiana State University showing a reduction in airway inflammation in rodent asthma models with doses significantly less than that one that causes intoxication… A whole new class of anti-asthma medicines could arise because of DOI research, improving millions of lives worldwide.”
What Comes Next in the Legal Battle for DOI and DOC?
Rush and Phelps will present significant evidence during the 10-day hearing next month to counteract the DEA’s claims. Afterward, the judge will make his non-binding recommendation and send it to the administrator. Then, it’s up to the DEA to decide.
The recent ruling denying the DEA’s attempt to block key witnesses further bolsters the opposition’s case, adding momentum as they prepare to present evidence and testimony.
If the judge finds in the petitioners’ favor, the administrator could adopt the judge’s ruling
“There’s always a chance the DEA could do the right thing,” said Rush.
However, it could also ignore a favorable ruling and proceed with scheduling. If that happens, Rush said he will not give up. The next step will be to move forward with litigation, where he will challenge the organization’s rule-making authority in court.
“We have to check the DEA’s excessive power,” said Rush.
The Bottom Line
The DEA has been extraordinarily aggressive in scheduling psychoactive drugs since establishing the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, and if history repeats, DOI and DOC will not be spared. We’ve seen that their attempts to control chemicals have exacerbated cartel violence, spurred countless unjust arrests, and stifled scientific progress, especially regarding psychedelics and mental health interventions. Let’s hope sensibility and freedom win this time.
Want to show your support for the cause? Considerdonating to SSDP to help them raise funds to bring the case’s witnesses, all university researchers, to the 10-day hearing.
Psychedelic shadow work is central to the transformative potential of entheogens, helping us confront and integrate hidden parts of our psyche.
Psychedelic experiences, in and of themselves, do not create lasting change by chance or passively – they require active participation. Entheogens can open the doors to the unconscious and invite us to make meaning from its contents. Shadow work supports this soul-manifesting process by helping us embrace our hidden parts so that we may become fully actualized.
What is the Shadow?
Psychotherapist Carl G. Jung coined the term “shadow” to describe the instincts, drives, and emotions we consciously and unknowingly repress but whose malignant impacts we feel.
The shadow contains our darkest secrets, covert desires, and obscured emotions. It holds our greatest fears and our fullest potential; it is the source of intuition, wisdom, and individuation. And yet, most of us reject it because we fear the truth – that we are both good and evil, loving and hateful, angry and calm, devastated and joyful, masculine and feminine.
“The shadow is a living part of the personality and therefore, wants to live with it in some form. It cannot be argued out of existence or rationalized into harmlessness,” said Jung in Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.
This process is necessary, according to the late psychedelic-assisted therapy pioneer Ann Shulgin. After all, we can’t enact our darkest fantasies of rear-ending every insufferable driver who cuts us off. We need executive control via the ego to quell such drives.
However, the issue arises when we overcorrect and deny our shadow’s existence.
When we hide from unflattering elements of ourselves, like aggression, guilt, power-hunger, and greed, we paradoxically give these traits more control over our lives. Unseen shadows show up unexpectedly, like when we lash out over minor frustrations, sabotage our career because of unacknowledged fears of success, or spout passive-aggressive remarks instead of confronting conflict directly. Unprocessed shame or guilt can manifest as perfectionism, and buried feelings of inadequacy may elicit a compulsive need to control.
“A man who is possessed by his shadow is always standing in his own light and falling into his own traps,” wrote Jung.
But just as we suppress unfavorable qualities, we also bury our brightest traits.
What is the Golden Shadow?
The “golden shadow” refers to these constructive qualities, such as confidence, creativity, compassion, leadership, and joy. We see these characteristics in others but sometimes fail to recognize them within ourselves because we feel unworthy, afraid of failure, or unfamiliar with how to embody them.
Kyle Buller, M.S., Psychedelics Today co-founder and psychedelic integration therapist, notes that many of us come from environments where positivity is unwelcomed.
“People may find it hard to experience joy because they associate it with guilt or shame, or they might feel that the therapeutic focus should be about the ‘darker emotions’ when it comes to shadow work. They may want to shut the good feelings down. This can be a great opportunity to work with the golden shadow,” said Buller.
Whether golden or dark, the shadow must emerge from hiding so we can reclaim our autonomy. But we must do the work to coax it out.
“We develop our ability to be aware and embody what we are conscious of,” Cohen told Psychedelics Today.
Psychedelics are one of the best ways to do this work because they “activate and amplify the psyche and our emotional, somatic and spiritual dimensions.” Dreams, hypnosis, and life transitions are also excellent catalysts.
Dreams Jung believed dreams offer a direct path to the unconscious through their symbols. He suggested that themes like falling could represent a fear of failure, being chased might signify an unresolved conflict, and dark figures could convey unaddressed desires. He advocated that processing and analyzing such symbols illuminates the shadow.
Hypnosis According to Ann Shulgin, Ericksonian hypnosis is another powerful shadow work method. This approach leads patients into a trance, where they descend a stairway deep into their inner world. When they reach the basement, they confront the shadow, which they see as a fierce animal. The hypnotist instructs them not to fear the beast but to enter its form and experience the world through its eyes. This merging allows them to harness the shadow as an ally rather than an enemy.
Transitions Major life transitions, such as losing a loved one or experiencing a midlife crisis, can also ignite shadow work, whether we choose it or not. Such events break down our defenses and ego structures, leaving us vulnerable to repressed emotions, drives, and conflicts that demand our attention in order to grow.
Psychedelics Psychedelic experiences are perhaps the most reliable path into the depths of our souls because they fundamentally change the way we think, feel, see, and perceive our inner and outer worlds. Entheogens teleport us directly beyond the ego’s veil into the unknown
“Psychedelics offer a unique opportunity to face our repressed parts head-on. They allow access in ways that regular psychotherapy may not,” said Buller.
How Can Shadow Work Arise During Psychedelic Journeys?
Psychedelics help us access the shadow by disrupting the way our neural networks communicate and perceive stimuli. This process reduces activity in the brain’s default mode network (DMN), which governs our sense of self and ego.
When the DMN quiets, boundaries between consciousness and unconsciousness blur. The resulting experience excavates stifled thoughts, memories, emotions, and visions while allowing us to interact with them from an open and receptive state.
Shadow work can happen naturally during these journeys. We might even transcend the unconscious labels of “good” vs. ” bad” while stepping outside our sticky parts to merge with something greater than ourselves. Such interconnected insights are transformative, but they are not necessarily the norm.
Psychedelics often reveal harrowing traumas and wounded parts that we may be unskilled to face. This confrontation can spark intense anger, grief, or shame. Our ego will resist the discomfort to protect us, but its efforts will paradoxically exacerbate it. We may become overwhelmed, overly identified with the pain, or completely detached from reality.
These very real risks are a crucial reason navigating the shadow with psychedelics often requires support, especially when we’re inexperienced with these substances.
The Importance of Support in Psychedelic Shadow Work
Psychedelic-assisted therapy, preparation and integration coaching, and group processing provide critical foundations to face and embrace unconscious aspects of the self.
Skilled practitioners know how to hold space for every part of us to emerge. If we’re experiencing unresolved rage, therapists or facilitators can help us feel and release it.
“Anger is a major emotion that people often struggle to express. We [as practitioners] might ask, ‘What would it look like to express this anger?’ It could mean yelling, shaking, or verbalizing. Clients may even direct anger toward the therapist in place of the person they’re really angry at,” said Buller, who added that projections are O.K. within the confines of the practitioner’s comfort and safety boundaries.
Psychedelic facilitators also invite us to stick with the feelings we may want to oppose.
“When clients experience discomfort, we might ask, ‘Can you find pleasure in this sensation?’ Sometimes, the edge of discomfort is where the real work begins,” said Buller.
Buller explains that from a holotropic breathwork perspective, amplifying emotional expression is the key to expunging it from our system.
However, the edge is sometimes too dangerous to approach, and effective practitioners know when to pull back the reins.
“We don’t push shadow work agendas on clients. If you go too quickly, the parts might rebel. Instead, we take a slow approach and partner with the client so they can eventually go deeper,” said Buller.
This alliance allows practitioners to determine when digging into the shadow’s contents is appropriate and when it could inflict harm.
Integrating Psychedelic Shadow Work
After confronting the shadow, we must begin the process of integration, where we interpret and act on our findings. Some of the most effective integration methods involve working with a therapist, coach, or support group.
“Ideally, we want to start with a safe process of slowly digesting our psychedelic insights. We can then form a relationship of curiosity, inquiry, and then change,” said Cohen.
The change piece can be the most challenging because it mandates that we rewire our lives to match the authentic selves we’ve been hiding for so long. We may need to quit a job, end a marriage, or restructure relationships with friends, family, and substances. Such radical shifts often require reliable help and compassionate accountability.
Therapists trained in psychedelic integration, especially those using frameworks like Jungian analysis or Internal Family Systems (IFS), are well-suited for effective shadow work because they provide a structured approach to processing unconscious material.
Jungian therapists can help interpret the symbolic messages of psychedelic visions, such as the tiger, whose archetype might signify repressed feminine essence, aggression, or independent spirit.
Analysts can also help us make sense of bodily sensations, postures, memories, and emotions.
“We then want to understand the shadow material within the larger context. How was it formed, what’s its use, and more. This will allow us to start weaving together a narrative, opening us to intergenerational and environmental influences and having more compassion with ourselves,” said Cohen.
In the context of IFS, therapists can help us integrate the shadow using parts language. They may guide us in understanding that the tiger is a protector part, fiercely defending our vulnerable exiled parts, such as our traumatized inner child from suffering. Such terminology prevents us from overidentifying with the stifled rage and allows for a more harmonious and balanced sense of self.
The Bottom Line
Psychedelic shadow work is transformative, especially in the context of powerful journeys and integration. It provides a framework for understanding the visions, sensations, and thoughts that arise during altered states of consciousness and invites us to engage further. In turn, psychedelics calm our ego and amplify our psyche so we may embrace our inner outcasts as missing puzzle pieces to the fullest expression of our humanity.
Are you interested in learning more about what the shadow can reveal? Join us forIlluminating the Hidden Self: Navigating the Jungian Shadow with Psychedelics. In this 8-week live-taught course, participants will learn how to work with the Shadow in a conscious and embodied way, how to harness the psychic potential of the Golden Shadow, and more. Seats are limited.
Have you ever hit a creative roadblock on a project or a problem you need to solve? Chances are, there might be a psychedelic for that.
Despite their recent focus on medical and mental health benefits, psychedelics have long been linked to creativity and insight. And in light of the FDA’s recent decision to withhold approval for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy, it’s become more important than ever to cultivate a wider view around psychedelics and their potential to shape and influence our lives.
The exploration of psychedelics as tools for creative breakthroughs offers profound potential to expand our understanding of how these substances influence the human mind beyond their medical and therapeutic applications. In the Vital psychedelic training program, we incorporate these ideas, especially for those pursuing careers as coaches and wellness practitioners.
Throughout this article, we’ll examine how these substances have been used to help people boost creativity, gain insights, and enhance problem-solving abilities – and the science behind it.
Unlocking Creativity Through Psychedelics
Whether encountered through a sudden flash of insight in “Eureka!” moments, or through a lengthy process of deep ideation, creativity is a mysterious force that allows us to connect information in new and unexpected ways. Often, it can lead to new understandings that help us adapt to an ever-changing world.
Historically, psychedelics have long played a role in inspiring creative genius and fostering insight. From Beat poet Allen Ginsberg, whose iconic poem “Howl” was inspired by his psychedelic experiences, to Nobel laureate Francis Crick, who credited LSD with helping him discover the structure of DNA, these substances have shaped some of the most influential minds in history. Even Steve Jobs described LSD as “one of the most important things” he did in his life, underscoring the transformative role psychedelics have played in sparking innovation and artistic expression.
Biochemist Kary Mullis credits his use of LSD in playing a vital role in his discovery of how to automate the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a pioneering breakthrough which earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993.
Although the discovery did not come about while directly under the influence of LSD, it helped him to “inhabit” DNA molecules from a new perspective.
“PCR’s another place where I was down there with the molecules when I discovered it and I wasn’t stoned on LSD, but my mind by then had learned how to get down there. I could sit on a DNA molecule and watch the polymerase go by,” Mullis said.
More recently, astrobiologist Bruce Damer came out of the psychedelic closet, sharing how psychedelics, in combination with other consciousness-expanding practices, helped him arrive at what is now a widely cited hypothesis on the origins of life.
“My own story is that an interweaving of endogenous preparation and meditation combined with a low dose of ayahuasca led to a breakthrough to the scientific question of how life could have begun on the Earth, four billion years ago. The telling of this story led to the formation of the Center for MINDS,” he explained.
A newly formed nonprofit, MINDS is dedicated to exploring how psychedelics and other consciousness-expanding practices can play a role in creative problem solving to help our species find innovative solutions to the polycrises of our time.
Unlike other psychedelic organizations, MINDS is focused on what they refer to as “psychedelic-assisted innovation” as an emergent practice that could serve to revitalize the public perception of the value of psychedelics and a yet to be explored path to regulatory approval.
Damer outlines what he perceives as the current pathways to psychedelic access and regulation, including Indigenous and cultural use; personal growth and expression; and therapeutic applications, calling for a so-called “fourth path” in psychedelic research and discourse, utilizing them as tools for creative breakthroughs in science and technology.
“We believe that a next step beyond the therapeutic applications of psychedelic practices is their use as elixirs of creativity. MINDS hopes to validate their effects through science and valorize their practice in our society through established protocols,” Damer told Psychedelics Today.
The Role of Altered States in Creative and Scientific Discoveries
Throughout the ages, mystical, non-ordinary states of consciousness such as dreaming and hypnagogia (the liminal state between wakefulness and sleep) have been linked to creative insight across cultures and disciplines. These states have played a major role in scientific breakthroughs, artistic expression, and technological innovation.
Chemist Friedrich August Kekulé was famously dozing off by his fireplace when he had a vivid vision of molecules transforming into snakes. In this vision, one of the snakes twisted into a circle, forming an ouroboros, a serpent devouring its own tail. This image inspired him to understand that the chemical structure of benzene was, in fact, a closed ring.
Such naturally occurring non-ordinary states of consciousness are similar to psychedelic states in that they allow for a heightened capacity for mental imagery and visualization, sharing more fluid, free-flowing, imagistic, and highly associative patterns of consciousness.
Referring to how individuals like Nikola Tesla envisioned the electric generator and Albert Einstein uncovered the basic principles of his special theory of relativity in non-ordinary states of consciousness, psychiatrist and founding father of transpersonal psychology Stanislav Grof explains, “It is a well-known fact that many important ideas and solutions to problems did not originate in the context of logical reasoning, but in various unusual states of mind – in dreams, while falling asleep or awakening, at times of extreme physical and mental fatigue, or during an illness with high fever.”
A 2022 paper on psychedelics as tools for creative insight examined the way in which dreaming and hypnagogic states overlap with the psychedelic experience, shedding light on shared neurophenomenological and cognitive processes. They suggest that one key feature of creativity is our capacity to have fluid and flexible cognitive processes, shifting between modes of thought such as divergent and convergent thinking. That is, our ability to come up with as many different solutions as possible to a loosely defined problem, versus coming up with a single solution to a well-defined problem.
The authors conclude that, “The psychedelic state may have its own characteristic features making it amenable to creativity enhancement, such as brain hyperconnectivity, meta-cognitive awareness, access to a more dependable and sustained altered state experience, and potential for eliciting sustained shifts in trait openness.”
Exploring the Research on Psychedelics and Creative Problem Solving
A group of 27 professionals, including engineers, architects, and mathematicians, were dosed with LSD or mescaline, then put into small, carefully curated working groups. In preparation for the experiment, each participant was instructed to choose one (or more) problems related to their work that required a creative solution.
Participants were able to find solutions to certain problems they had been working on for weeks – and in some cases months – reporting decreased feelings of inhibition, a greater ability to conceptualize the problem in a broader context, enhanced ideation, and heightened capacity for visual imagery.
“I worked at a pace I would not have thought I was capable of. My mind seemed much freer to roam around the problems, and it was these periods of roaming around which produced solutions… I dismissed the original idea entirely, and started to approach the graphic problem in a radically different way. That was when things began to happen. All kinds of different possibilities came to mind,” said one participant.
The first study of its kind, it is not considered as scientifically rigorous as today’s double-blind, placebo-controlled standards – participants were positively primed for the experience by being instructed that the substances would help enhance their creativity. Even so, it suggests that psychedelics do have the ability to enhance creative problem-solving (set, setting, and intentionality permitting).
A 2016 study explored ayahuasca’s effects on creativity, finding that the brew enhanced performance on tasks related to divergent thinking, while convergent thinking decreased. This impaired ability for convergent thinking is thought to be related to the large dosage of substance given and the strong, sometimes disorienting experiences it can produce.
Compared with practices like microdosing, it has been suggested that higher doses might limit cognitive processing abilities, being potentially too distracting to focus on specific problem-solving activities.
Another study measured psilocybin’s effect of convergent and divergent thinking, finding that even though participants reported feeling more creative, they performed worse on tasks measuring both types of creativity during the experience. However, a week later, when compared to the placebo group, those who ingested psilocybin scored higher on convergent creativity.
It is thought that this could be linked to the way in which psychedelics dampen the activity of the default mode network (DMN), an interconnected group of brain regions associated with introspective functions and internally directed thought, such as self-reflection, and self-criticism during the experience itself. After the acute phase of a psychedelic experience, the DMN connectivity is reconsolidated in a new way, producing neuroplastic changes in the brain, possibly leading to increases in creativity.
The practice of microdosing has also been celebrated for its perceived ability to enhance creativity, being widely used among Silicon Valley tech workers. However, up until recently, the link between microdosing and creativity remained anecdotal. A 2018 study by researchers at Leiden University, gave psilocybin-containing truffles to attendees at a microdosing event hosted by the Dutch Psychedelic Society, inviting participants to take part in two creative problem-solving tasks to measure their divergent and convergent thinking skills. Findings showed that participants scored significantly higher on both convergent and divergent thinking tests after ingesting a microdose.
Although the study didn’t directly set out to understand the connection between psychedelics and creativity, it found that psilocybin produced increases in trait “openness” which is linked to “new ideas and values, imagination, aesthetic appreciation, novelty-seeking, non-conformity, and creativity.” However, researchers suggested that such increases in openness might also be linked to psychedelic-assisted therapy specifically.
Another key feature of the psychedelic brain state is increased global connectivity – enhanced communication between brain regions and networks. This shift may underlie the fluid and unconstrained thinking associated with psychedelics, promoting novel perspectives and creative insights.
Psychedelics are also known to induce a state of higher brain entropy, marked by more dynamic and less predictable brain activity, which opens up a greater range of brain states. This “anarchic” state, described in the REBUS model (Relaxed Beliefs Under Psychedelics), reduces reliance on prior beliefs and expectations, fostering a richer conscious experience that can enhance creative thinking. By loosening preconceptions – often barriers to creativity – psychedelics may help the mind break free from conventional thought patterns, although this can also diminish the ability to critically evaluate ideas.
The Shadow Side of Psychedelic Insight
One important question to factor when considering creative insights and solutions born from psychedelic reveries is: whether such downloads hold true and find congruence within larger bodies of knowledge, or not.
As with dreams, psychedelic experiences are often replete with symbols, imagery, and impressions that do not necessarily have a fixed or simple meaning. As with any other type of psychedelic journey, it is important to emphasize the period of integration in which mystical, ineffable insights are carefully distilled into real-world understanding and enduring change. In the case of using psychedelics for creative problem-solving, this process of integration would have to coalesce with larger scientific and industry protocols, continually revisiting, testing, and refining insights through processes of peer review.
In Vital, we stress the importance of discernment and integration when working with these substances. Our program trains participants to support clients in not only navigating the psychedelic experience itself but also in applying their newfound perspectives in a grounded, practical way.
In the past, psychedelics have been heralded as a “magic bullet” or “cure all” for mental health diagnoses as well as looked to as a way to resolve the climate crisis through their ability to shift our relationship with the natural world. In looking to psychedelics as tools for creative problem-solving to help us meet the multiple existential crises that we are facing as a species, it is critical that we tread with caution, not becoming overly zealous in our desire to exalt psychedelics as a simple solution to our collective problems. No doubt, when used with care, they can serve to help us along the path, but only represent one tool in a cadre of others.
Australia’s relationship with psychedelics has taken a dramatic turn in recent years – but beneath the surface, an enduring underground movement has quietly shaped the country’s evolving psychedelic landscape.
In 2023, the country’s Therapeutic Goods Administration made a groundbreaking decision to reclassify psilocybin and MDMA under Schedule 8 (Controlled Drug) for specific therapeutic uses. This decision reflects a global shift towards recognizing the potential benefits of psychedelic-assisted therapy, particularly in treating mental health conditions like treatment-resistant depression and PTSD.
While this movement is largely focused on clinical settings, there is another, less visible layer to Australia’s psychedelic landscape: the underground.
The story of psychedelics in Australia isn’t just about modern medical breakthroughs; it’s about a rich, covert history where underground practitioners, researchers, and communities have kept the flame burning throughout decades of prohibition.
In this article, we explore the Western influence of psychedelic interest, information dissemination, and the key underground movements that have shaped Australia’s unique relationship with these substances, from the early days of prohibition to the present psychedelic resurgence.
The Underground Origins of Psychedelic Science in Australia
The global story of psychedelic prohibition is well-known, beginning in the late 1960s when substances like LSD and psilocybin were criminalized. Though geographically distant from the epicenter of the War on Drugs, Australia was significantly impacted by this shift. Formal psychedelic research ended in Australia, as the U.S. declared psychedelics a societal scourge.
From then, the culture of psychedelic science in Australia went underground. During the ’70s, ’80s, and then into the psychedelic renaissance of the ’90s, research around entheogens continued in an active and vibrant counterculture.
Australia’s underground science has been multidisciplinary, with chemistry, botany, mycology, anthropology, and archaeology all contributing to our understanding of these compounds. While these substances were typically used recreationally, there was an appreciation for how they could be used therapeutically; it is this therapeutic aspect that is currently driving contemporary interest.
As we move forward into a period of time where psychedelic therapy carries a sense of legitimacy and hope, it is important not to dismiss the wealth of knowledge maintained by generations of psychedelic scientists, harm reduction educators, and underground facilitators who have passionately continued their work with these substances regardless of the legal implications.
There exist many communities of people who actively help support each other to understand themselves and how to “do the work,” not just underground practitioners but also groups of young men and women who are growing plants and mushrooms, sharing them with their friends in a community of shared knowledge, and supporting each other’s work through traumatic experiences.
Psychedelic Science Becomes Citizen Science
The psychedelic surge of the ’60s catalyzed a generation whose interest in psychoactive compounds could not be quashed by prohibition. Events and publications on psychedelic plants and fungi were essential to spreading awareness and cultivating a movement of citizen science in Australia and around the globe.
Anyone who had a copy of the famous article from Life Magazine written by Gordon Wasson had access to the beautiful and taxonomically accurate illustrations by French Mycologist Roger Heim. It was from these illustrations that many first learned how to identify the Psilocybe mushroom species in the wild.
The landmark 1967 San Francisco conference, Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs, was the first conference dedicated to conversations about psychoactive plants and fungi. The conference also published a book with numerous articles discussing many entheogens. This conference and book were seen as significant at the time and were revisited 50 years later, with another conference and second volume of the book.
The late ’60s saw the beginnings of a ‘literature underground’ that communicated a lot of the information people wanted about psychedelics. In 1969, Robert E. Brown and associates published The Psychedelic Guide to the Preparation of the Eucharist in a Few of Its Many Guises, a publication that set the bar for a sophisticated level of knowledge that circulated in underground texts for decades. The book described the cultivation of a number of entheogenic plants and the extraction and synthesis of the associated alkaloids.
Though formal research ground to a halt around the world following prohibition, the non-clinical use of psychedelics kept going. And while underground chemists such as Bear Stanley and Nick Sand were producing large quantities of LSD, those in the movement were also investigating alternatives, particularly psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
In the following decades of underground research, two fields of study in particular significantly contributed to psychedelic science: ethnobotany and mycology.
Ethnobotany in Australia: The Planting of Many Seeds
The landmark Life Magazine story, Seeking the Magic Mushroom, sparked an interest in the traditional use of many fungi and plants. When LSD was criminalized, many began looking for alternatives.
There had been a fascination for psychoactive plants within the scientific community for hundreds of years, with the publication of many Materia Medica discussing the use of poisons and narcotics for medicinal applications.
Many of these books referred to older herbal books or medieval manuscripts. Considerable psychedelic-referencing literature was written during the early 1900s, with books and papers discussing peyote, morning glory, ergot, and, of course, fungi.
The publication of Carlos Castenada’s The Teachings of Don Juan in 1970 sparked a wider cultural fascination with psychoactive plants in Australia. A growing curiosity led many people to source some of the plants discussed, often not ethically.
Peyote especially suffered from overharvesting, making it harder for Indigenous groups to access the plants necessary for their traditional pilgrimages. Some plants, such as Datura and Brugmansia, became problematic, with people not appreciating the dangers inherent in such powerful entheogens.
Finding Fungi: Mycological Exploration in Australia
Mycology has long been a key aspect of citizen psychedelic science in Australia. Mushrooms had the benefit of being free but also came with the thrill of foraging. Foragers will happily tell you how rewarding finding a large haul of mushrooms can be. While many plants take time and patience, magic mushrooms could be readily foraged or cultivated in a matter of months, but also discreetly.
The culture around the cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis “Gold Tops” or “Golden Teachers” and Psilocybe tampenensis “magic truffles” or “philosophers stones,” has been one of the significant undercurrents in psychedelic science in Australia.
In 1991, Alexander and Ann Shulgin published the legendary book PiHKaL, followed by TiHKaL in 1997. These two books were published based on the citizen science principles of keeping the science open, to use by those who are interested in diving in.
In 1997, the website, The Shroomery, launched and quickly became a significant resource for all things psilocybe and mushroom cultivation in general. Other sites that helped communicate information about psychedelics included Lyceum, EROWID, and the forums Bluelight, Mycotopia, and DMT-Nexus.
In Australia, The Corroboree (the world’s longest-running ethnobotanical online forum) and Ethnobotany-Australia were crucial sites for locals exploring psychedelics.
The Psychedelic Underground in Australia Flourishes
While the United States and Europe were the epicenters of this cultural change, Australia was not immune to their influence. Music, clothing, fashion, and lifestyle choices were a little behind their contemporaries, but a fascination with psychedelics was a big part of this dynamic.
“Some species of toadstool give rise to a kind of intoxication. A former colleague of mine told me how ‘my parents ate once a dish of mushrooms, and as the meal progressed, they gradually became more and more hilarious, the most simple remark giving rise to peals of laughter.’”
It is thought the mushrooms were Psilocybe cubensis, picked while foraging for field mushrooms.
In 1958, mycologists Aberdeen and Jones published a paper entitled A Hallucinogenic Toadstool in the Australian Journal of Science. They were investigating Panaeolus ovatus, thought to be responsible for several accidental intoxications in Australia, but the pair concluded it was more likely P. cubensis. Aberdeen is remembered for being particularly interested in this hallucinogenic species.
“For some time, young drug users had been aware of the existence of a ‘legendary mushroom,’ but information regarding habitat, identification, and effects was lacking. It seems that the necessary information was supplied by a visiting surfer from New Zealand or the U.S.A.,” wrote J.P. McCarthy in 1971.
Locals in the small town of Nimbin in Northern New South Wales would disagree, saying: “We knew about them long before that.”
Australia is home to some particularly beautiful cactus collections, with many Trichocereus species imported during the ’50s and ’60s and allowed to grow to impressive stands. Members of cactus communities often met and swapped seeds and cuttings of various species, including peyote.
In time, many of the larger cactus collections were opened to the public. With the resurgence of interest in hallucinogenic cacti, a new generation began growing and setting up small nurseries. One of these, Urban Tribes, regarded as one of the better cacti collections in Australia, was created by Mark Camo in 1994, who was also possibly responsible for the first cutting of Banisteriopsis caapi in Australia.
Connecting the Psychedelic Dots Across the Continent
Australia is a large, mostly empty country. Psychedelics, being a fairly niche, and legally tricky interest, meant a lot of people interested in underground psychedelic science were often isolated from each other.
The Australian psychedelic underground has required a certain level of self-sufficiency, and networking, but with the introduction of electronic communication in the early ’90s, things rapidly changed.
The publication in 1994 of Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Hyperspace introduced many to this rapidly evolving network of technically minded psychonauts. The emergence of various websites and forums within the digital landscape of the late ’90s allowed a much broader and more immediate form of interaction, education, and harm reduction around the fungi, plants, and compounds being used in Australia.
It was not unusual during the ’90s and early ’00s for small crowds of individuals to gather in the forest for ‘bush doofs’ (or raves). These gatherings became psychedelic meeting points, allowing people of like minds to connect and share knowledge. As the ’90s progressed, there was a revival of countercultural ideas, with a fascination for the Beat movement of the ’50s, alternative lifestyles, and particularly, psychedelics.
A growing interest in ethnobotany led many university students to access scientific literature and distribute knowledge on the internet. Information about the presence of DMT in Australia’s native Acacia, Acacia maidenii, was discovered in scientific literature by a student at the University of Sydney, who went on to publish extraction techniques and subsequent experiments.
Terence McKenna visited Australia in 1997 for a speaking engagement at Beyond the Brain Club in Byron Bay. Rumor has it McKenna left a B.caapi vine cutting behind. DMT and ayahuasca were rapidly gaining popularity at the time, and McKenna’s visit led to an increased curiosity and, in time, the popularity of ayahuasca circles in Australia.
The first of many Ethnobotanica conferences was held at Wandjina Gardens in Northern New South Wales in 2001. These small gatherings inspired the formation of Entheogenesis Australis (EGA), which held its first conference in Belgrave, Victoria, in 2004.
These events allowed a multidisciplinary community of both underground and aboveground researchers, scientists, writers and more, to come together, share knowledge, educate, and support others entering the space, in ways that had never happened before in Australia.
In 2010, MAPS founder Rick Doblin was invited to speak at that year’s EGA Symposium. A workshop held after the event led to the formation of Psychedelic Research in Science & Medicine (PRISM), which is now Australia’s leading psychedelic research charity. The EGA conferences are now recognized as one of the longest-running psychedelic conferences.
Honoring the History of the Australian Psychedelic Underground
The option to use psychedelics within a therapeutic context in Australia is promising, though many professionals entering this space may be unaware of the importance of the underground work, which laid the foundation to understanding effects, how to use psychedelics safely, the problems around consent, and also how to integrate the psychedelic experience.
As the space around psychedelics change, there is a need for reflection on how far our understanding of these substances have come by virtue of underground researchers. While building on the work of traditional practices, and prior research, there is, perhaps, also a need to consider a contemporary approach, reflecting on underground practices in an attempt to create a modern approach to psychedelics without appropriating traditional practices.
In the communities of the Shipibo people in the Peruvian Amazon, there are healers known as onayas and witches known as yubés. During ayahuasca ceremonies, onayas will attempt to alleviate the suffering of participants who have been cursed by yubés, through cleansing rituals and songs. In doing so, the onayas risk their lives, according to Alonso del Rio, the founder of retreat center Ayahuasca Ayllu.
An energetic battle between the onaya and the yubé soon ensues, he says. The onaya may not sleep for an entire week, under constant attack from the yubé in another plane of consciousness.
“There have been many high-level healers who have died from confrontations with these so-called witches,” del Rio claims, saying that such skirmishes take place in the metaphysical realms between most Amazonian communities. This possibility was previously noted in the 1998 book, The Cosmic Serpent, among other texts.
Del Rio – who was born in the Peruvian capital Lima and studied for 13 years in the Shipibo tradition to become a psychedelic facilitator – accepts that this is a controversial topic, which is unlikely to be taken seriously by many educated people. But he says that a serious, lengthy illness and the destruction of his house some years ago is evidence of this sinister reality. Only when del Rio began to understand the nature of a curse placed upon him in 2005 by a disgruntled sorcerer, was he able to learn how to cure himself and prevent his likely demise.
The Risk and Responsibility of Preserving Ancestral Psychedelic Knowledge
As part of this ongoing quest, del Rio – a self-described “consciousness activist” who holds ayahuasca ceremonies in Peru and across the world, where it is permitted – has collaborated with Psychedelics Today to develop a course titled “Ancestral Teachings for the Psychedelic Renaissance” to help psychonauts and practitioners deepen their understanding of the nebulous nature of shamanism. He refers to ayahuasca, peyote, huachuma and other plant-based psychedelics as “power plants.”
“Because power is something neutral,” del Rio says. “It depends on who uses it and what for.” The consumption of plants like ayahuasca, or lab-based psychedelics like LSD, he adds, does not automatically improve people. Contrary to the belief held by many who work in the field, he believes they should not be called “medicine,” because psychedelics are not inherently medicinal.
The course illustrates how complex and testing a life dedicated to sharing psychedelic plants ceremonially is.
“I believe that the deeper one goes into this path, the more you realize how infinite it is, and the care and responsibility you have to take to preserve your life and the lives of the people attending a ceremony,” he says.
Beyond Science: How Ancestral Psychedelic Knowledge Offers a Deeper Understanding of Healing
Del Rio – who studied under a Shipibo onaya named Benito Arevalo who encouraged him to share the teachings more widely – feels the best path to responsible administration of power plants is achieved by undergoing a comprehensive apprenticeship with an elder.
“I believe that there are many people who put many people at risk because of their poor training,” he says. “This is not something you really learn, not even in ten years, [but] it is a lifelong path in which we are being formed and each time we understand more how to serve better.”
Stripping psychedelic medicine of its 10,000-year-old Indigenous history and framework of use in order to make it fit within a Western allopathic healthcare system is short-sighted, he contends. It seems that being dispensed psilocybin in a medical setting in the U.S. could be safer than risking being cursed by a yubé in Peru during an ayahuasca ceremony, but del Rio says that the psychedelics cannot only be understood within a scientific paradigm.
“The same amount of substance will work differently for different people,” he maintains. “The substances are not actually what heals, within our tradition, the energy of the healer contributes as much as the substance itself.”
Integration of Ancestral Psychedelic Knowledge into Modern Psychedelic Practices
Little by little, there is an increasing appreciation that Western medicine can learn from the ancient history of psychedelics. In September, an article published by the BBC reported on how it is essential for Western society to develop an understanding of how Indigenous communities have “very different belief systems for interacting with and interpreting the world around them.”
The bulk of clinical psychedelic research thus far has been focused on the individual, as opposed to the group. Any possible interaction with the natural or spirit worlds is completely overlooked. Del Rio urges modern-day researchers to integrate traditional knowledge, “so we don’t repeat mistake after mistake, which, above all, would put many people at risk.”
The Role of Nature and Community in Preserving the Ancestral
Indigenous peoples in the Americas “have maps, guides, a deep familiarity with altered states of consciousness,” Jules Evans, a psychedelics researcher at Queen Mary University of London, who directs the non-profit Challenging Psychedelic Experiences, told the BBC. “Secular people, on the whole, do not. As a result, people can be bewildered by the experience and confused as to how to integrate it into a materialistic worldview. This existential confusion can last months or years, and the person who comes out on the other side may be very different to the person before.”
Central to the process of integration of ancestral psychedelic knowledge is a sense of community, but participants in psychedelic retreats can be left wanting when they return to the urban silos and experience isolation even after transcendent, healing experiences. Even more important is a connection with nature, according to Francisco Rivarola, who worked with del Rio to produce the course.
“The daughter of a Shipibo chief told me that she believes … that what is really sickening society is the disconnection that they have from nature and the source of the divine,” he says.
“The psychedelic [experience] is a portal through which maybe, if you’re lucky and you do this the right way, you can touch upon that connection.”
A failure to make secure that enduring connection – in tandem with the sense of community experienced within ceremony – explains why many people persist in regularly taking high doses of psychedelics in group rituals without reporting long-term improvements in their health, Rivarola adds.
“Working with sacred plants within a ceremonial space allows you to understand something that the West does not understand,” says del Rio, “which is the intelligence of plants and how they can act selectively.”
The folly of Western science – and the psychedelics researchers who do not investigate plants and drugs outside of a “reductionist scientific paradigm that only sees matter without its interaction with other energy levels” – will soon become clear, he claims. “In ten or twenty years we will laugh at this model.”
Are you eager to increase your ancestral knowledge? In Ancestral Teachings for the Psychedelic Renaissance, you’ll experience an introduction to the depth of training that a traditional Peruvian curandero goes through and a roadmap for the life-long practices that anyone relating to psychedelic medicine and practices can benefit from. Over 20 hours of recorded classes, three live group calls,and two complimentary e-books are included. Secure your space today – seats are limited!
Doctors across the country are beginning to look beyond their prescription pads to explore new treatments for chronic pain management: psychedelics.
As clinical research mounts, patient stories become more frequent, and a desperate call for new solutions to help people find relief for chronic pain becomes louder, substances like psilocybin and MDMA are entering medical education as promising new treatments.
Healthcare professionals are listening and learning how psychedelics could become part of their practices, offering new hope to patients for whom traditional methods – like opioids and nerve blocks – often fall short.
Psychedelics Take Center Stage at Medical Conferences
Recently at the annual PAINWeek conference, more than 1,400 pain management professionals gathered to learn about advances in the field. Psychedelics took center stage: the 2024 event marked the first time psychedelic medicines had a dedicated track on the agenda.
Presentations in the psychedelic track were delivered by patients, healthcare professionals, including Dr. Eugene Vortsman, licensed clinical social worker Erica Siegal, and attorney Deborah Linden Saly, who are each engaged in research, advocacy, or clinical practice with substances like psilocybin, MDMA, LSD, and DMT.
A growing body of evidence shows people living with conditions including chronic low back pain, migraine, cluster headaches, fibromyalgia, traumatic brain injuries, and phantom limb pain often find that existing treatments are either ineffective or come with troubling or dangerous side effects.
The presence and fervor around psychedelics at the conference is the latest example of a growing focus by the medical community on psychedelics as a new and promising treatment for a wide range of chronic pain and physical conditions.
How Psychedelics Work to Combat Chronic Pain Conditions: Examining the Stories and Research
The complexity of pain is well-matched by the multiple ways that psychedelic substances impact human physiology and perception. Key pain prevention qualities of psychedelics include their ability to interfere with the ascending cascade of pain signals and their powerful anti-inflammatory effects.
New mechanisms of action for how psychedelics improve pain are continually being discovered and proposed. Broadly, it seems to be a complex confluence of biological, psychological and social factors that are all altered by psychedelics. It is premature to state that there is one key or overarching mechanism at work. The field continues to deepen knowledge about which substances and at what doses, are right for which conditions and individual patients.
Another exciting area of exploration is how psychedelics can be combined with a wide array of adjunctive therapies like neuromodulation, physical therapy, massage, mirror box exercises, posture therapy, and more to enhance the efficacy and enduring effect on chronic pain.
“I had been evaluated for musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction that I had acquired through a host of injuries over the years of my performance career, and in fact, had just been in the doctor’s office a few months earlier trying to determine if I had arthritis or something worse,” Wing said. “But right there in the (psilocybin) session room, I started having a neurological revision, with my muscles and nerves in my right inner thigh firing in an effort to recalibrate the sensory and motor inputs and outputs in that part of my kinetic chain.”
Personal stories combined with evidence from clinical studies suggest the positive experiences of people in pain who try psychedelic treatments are not lucky aberrations.
Navigating Legal Considerations of Psychedelics for Pain Management
Despite a rise in queries, concerns about discussing illegal substances keeps many in healthcare from speaking to their patients about psychedelics for chronic pain.
“Increasing numbers of patients ask me about the potential health benefits of psychedelic agents, both for my area of particular interest – cluster headache, as well as for other headache conditions and for general mental health,” Dr. Brian E. McGeeney, a neurologist and headache specialist in Boston said.
Attorney Deborah Linden Saly cautions healthcare providers: regardless of how state-level laws may change, psychedelics mostly remain illegal Schedule I substances at the federal level. But, she adds, medical professionals can employ strategies to mitigate liability when their clients ask them about psychedelics.
Broadly, healthcare providers can and should be able to answer questions about known efficacy (as documented in the scientific literature), psychedelic-prescription drug interactions, and be able to point to quality sources of information where the patients can learn more. Healthcare providers should be wary of recommending or encouraging psychedelic use until the legal status of these substances changes, but this does not negate providing clients, especially those who have exhausted all typical treatment methods, with resources and education – and encouraging them to seek more on their own.
Psychedelics Entering the Professional Education Arena
In the past two years, many professional medical meetings have included discussion of psychedelics to treat pain. Earlier this year, Dr. Emmanuelle Schindler spoke at the American Headache Society’s (AHS) Annual Scientific Conference about her positive and significant research on psilocybin for cluster headache and migraine.
This fall, AHS will also host a pre-course titled Psychedelics and Headache Advanced Course at their Scottsdale Symposium. Presenters for this course include the founder and executive director of Clusterbusters, Bob Wold; sociologist and author of Psychedelic Outlaws: The Movement Revolutionizing Modern Medicine, Joanna Kempner, PhD; and Dr. Emmanuelle Schindler and other physicians. By the end of 2024, Schindler will have spoken on this topic at 16 medical and research events in the past two years.
The patient advocacy group Clusterbusters recently held its 19th annual U.S. conference, and due to growing interest from healthcare providers, they introduced a Continuing Medical Education (CME) course for the first time. This addition led to a fourfold increase in the number of attending medical professionals, who came to learn from the cluster headache patient community about effective treatments, including the potential use of psychedelics.
“What a privilege it was to get a better understanding of this community and the disease they tragically share. But it’s for that shared agony that they can make their lives better, along with the lives of countless others. Not to mention all the lives they’ve saved. Now they can count my enlightenment among their triumphs,” said Dr. Stephanie Nahas, a Philadelphia-based headache specialist.
The Future of Chronic Pain Care: With or Without Psychedelics
One in five Americans currently suffers with chronic pain. Pain management professionals know better than anyone else (except maybe individuals living with poorly treated pain) that the medicines and therapies currently available are insufficient to deal with the epidemic that is growing in our aging society. Psychedelics won’t soon be a first-line pain treatment or an effective solution for all the people living with pain, but patients are increasingly using and reporting remarkable effects with psychedelics. And their physicians have taken notice.
Within the coming years, pain management professionals will likely begin to be able to integrate psychedelic medicines into their clinical practices. The time to educate them is now.
Registration for the annual Psychedelics & Pain Symposium hosted by the Psychedelics & Pain Association (PPA) and REMAP Therapeutics on Sept. 28 – 29 is now open. This online conference dives deep with researchers, clinicians, patients, and advocates leading the field of psychedelics for pain and physical conditions. Day One will explore in-depth the foundations of this topic and is free for all registrants. Day Two will focus on advanced topics including preliminary results from ongoing trials, exploration of complex mechanisms of action, and the clinical potential of psychedelics for physical conditions. Secure your seat now.
Despite the dose, the substance, or a carefully tuned set and setting, seemingly, psychedelics don’t always work for everyone. This frustrating phenomenon known as the “nada effect” sometimes shows up, and leaves individuals without the psychedelic trip they expected.
But why does this happen? Could the ego be the key to understanding this no-high zone, or are biological factors, medications, or deeper psychological and spiritual reasons to blame?
When Psychedelics Don’t Always Work: A Historical Account
When Richard Alpert, the former Harvard psychologist who later took the name Ram Dass, met his spiritual guru Maharajji in 1967 he was asked if he had “any of that yogi medicine.” Meaning, of course, LSD.
Alpert duly handed over a 300-milligram capsule of LSD, already a considerable dose, but Maharajji asked for two more pills.
“I was thinking this is going to be pretty interesting, and nothing happens at all,” Ram Dass later recounted. “I was impressed.”
Three years later in India, Maharajji requested an even larger dose of 1,200 milligrams.
“At one point he went under his blanket and then he came back down looking absolutely mad, and I thought ‘What have I done to this poor old man?’ He doesn’t understand the power of our medicine, and he probably did throw it over his shoulder last time.”
Once Ram Dass was “totally paranoid” and regretting giving such a potent dose of LSD to a man who had no experience with psychedelics, Maharajji “laughed in glee” and demonstrated that he had, in fact, not been tripping. The ultimate purpose of the exercise, it seemed, was to show Ram Dass the relative impermeability of the spiritually enlightened – so long as the mind is firmly fixed on God – to psychedelic substances.
‘The Psychedelic Space is Filled With Some of the Biggest Egos’
Today, scientists give the notion that psychedelics don’t work for the “enlightened” little regard, even despite contemporary tales of master meditators experiencing little effect from large doses.
“For a field that is all about ego dissolution, the psychedelic space is filled with some of the biggest egos that say the most outlandish stuff,” says Zeus Tipado, a neuroscientist and PhD candidate at the University of Maastricht. “A person claiming they can’t trip because they’re ‘more spiritually evolved’ is the highest of ego trips. They’re fabricating a level of superiority that is unnecessary and unscientific.”
Naturally, as the use of psychedelics increases and mainstream culture adopts some trippy elements, some may claim to be more spiritually evolved and psychedelically experienced than others.
“This creates a division – ‘us’ vs. ‘them’ thinking – and that thinking doesn’t really do much for humanity except create separation,” Tipado adds.
(Unsurprisingly) Studies Show People Have Stronger Experiences at Higher Doses
Although Maharajji took a huge dose of LSD, explanations for some who claim to have no discernible visionary or felt experience – the so-called “nada effect” could be related to the amount of substance taken.
Manoj Doss, PhD, a cognitive neuropsychopharmacologist at the University of Texas in Austin, largely rejects the idea that those who may have spiritually transcended are less likely to experience intense trips, but he acknowledges that people – monks, for instance – who are not caught up with the “chaos” of the mind and worrying about what they have to do the next day may find the psychedelic experience more tolerable.
“Some people definitely don’t get effects,” he says. “Some people don’t get visuals, but they get the weird mind space. Some people get visuals and less of the weird mind space. I do imagine if they cranked up the dose, then they would probably start to go into some weird places in their head.”
Why Psychedelics Don’t Work for Everyone: Prior Beliefs, Aphantasia, or Medication History
According to psychopharmacologist Robin Carhart-Harris’ relaxed beliefs under psychedelics (REBUS) theory, the relaxation of top-down expectations encoded within the default mode network of the brain is crucial.
Whether one’s top-down expectations relax or not “may be the defining characteristic of psychedelic brain dynamics and subjective experience,” reports neuroscientist Marco Aqil.
This process allows an increased flow of bottom-up information which is “unsuppressed” by existing beliefs.
Others are more prone to “absorption” than their peers.
“Maybe the only personality trait that is reliably known to be related to the intensity of the experience is absorption,” says Dr. Leor Roseman, a psychedelic researcher at Exeter University.
Some people get more absorbed easily in their external or internal worlds, he explains. For instance, some are more absorbed in the experience of watching a sunset than their peers.
“People who are higher on the absorption scale are also more sensitive to psychedelics,” adds Roseman. “People who are low on absorption need higher doses.”
Tipado, meanwhile, offers an alternative possible explanation that the condition aphantasia, which makes it impossible for people to visually imagine things, may impinge on the ability of people to have psychedelic visions.
“We don’t necessarily know why aphantasia happens and some people with this condition also have an inability to imagine hearing something – so it may be a wider sensory condition,” Tipado says. “Varying spectrums of aphantasia could explain why some people don’t have a perceptual trip when they do psychedelics.”
Those who do not experience intense effects may effectively have less serotonin 2-A receptors available for the psychedelic to upregulate, Doss adds. This could be down to having recently taken antipsychotic medication, though one paper proposes that genetics could be the reason. Early research and anecdotal reports also suggest that people who have taken antidepressants for some time are more likely to report reduced effects, because the drug is effectively using some of the serotonin receptors for its own purposes.
“I’ve heard of retreats in Jamaica and Mexico where they won’t wean people off SSRIs but start them at a regular dose but then double the dose if it doesn’t do anything,” Doss says. Other facilitators might then offer a cannabis joint to activate the effects of psilocybin, for instance.
‘For Some People, it’s Just So Hard to Trust’
But Dr. Rosalind Watts, the former clinical lead for Imperial College London’s psilocybin for depression trial, says that it would be wiser to guide people who have experienced serious traumas and exhibit signs of interpersonal distancing – characteristics, she says, of people who do not “break through” during psychedelic trials – through breathwork sessions and smaller doses over weeks prior to a bigger dose to build trust and safety.
“For some people, it is just so, so hard to trust,” Watts told the Adventures Through the Mind podcast. “There is this holding on, because it just doesn’t feel safe… [and they] would probably need a lot more support in order to let go.”
When somebody’s system is overwhelmed with a feeling of unsafety, there can be “a shutting down,” she adds. “On a neurobiological level I’m sure there are processes that kick in that might put the brakes on, if something feels so dangerous to the organism, then the organism shuts down.”
During the podcast, Watts responded to how psychiatrist Stan Grof spoke of how some hyper-vigilant patients exhibit a compulsive holding in the psyche that only a dose of 1,500 milligrams of LSD could penetrate, after which a regular dose of the psychedelic would have a felt an effect.
Those more interested in shamanistic explanations than clinical definitions may simply say, the person receives what they are ready for when it is the right time.
“There is a homeostatic balancing system and if your system doesn’t need a big jolt then you’re not going to get a big jolt,” says Watts. “My sense would be that dose would certainly come into it. And that for these people, if we’d have given them a much larger dose, then maybe there would have been this breakthrough and they wouldn’t have been able to hold on.”
It is not uncommon for at least one person in a group of people taking ayahuasca in a ceremony to report having experienced very little, or nothing, she adds.
“It would be very interesting to interview all those people and try and work out if there was some – maybe unconscious – sense of unsafety, in the environment because of how they were feeling that day, or just not feeling safe enough to let go.”
Roseman says that participants in certain ayahuasca ceremonies may justifiably not feel safe enough to have a transcendent experience
“There’s a lot of research about how trust predicts spiritual experiences, breakthroughs and positive therapeutic experiences,” he says. “Some people do not trust easily, but it can be that the facilitators are genuinely untrustworthy. Not all resistance is a bad thing.”
So, why did Maharajji not breakthrough with 1,200 milligrams of LSD?
“I don’t know, I don’t believe that so much,” says Roseman. “I don’t buy it.”
In an age where technology has made it easier than ever to reach each other, humanity faces a glaring paradox: people are more disconnected than ever before, and the need for togetherness has never been greater.
Disconnection isn’t just a social or personal issue – it’s a driving force behind the multiple, interconnected crises we’re facing today. This “polycrisis” is a term that speaks to a complex web of global challenges like climate change, social inequality, and political instability, which are deeply intertwined with the alienation we feel from each other, our environment, and even ourselves. We find ourselves caught in a vicious cycle that erodes our ability to innovate, collaborate, and maintain the relationships necessary to solve enormous problems.
But there is hope in psychedelics. As powerful tools that can heal fractures, psychedelics can restore our sense of belonging and connection with ourselves, each other, and the planet. By addressing the roots of alienation, psychedelics can offer a solution to not only individual and collective repair, but also a way to tackle the global polycrisis threatening our future.
Understanding Modern Alienation: Fuel for Fragmentation
Around the world, people are feeling a profound sense of disconnection – socially, culturally, environmentally, and from themselves. Over 60% of adults are chronically lonely, and this number continues to rise. Modern alienation has led to widespread isolation, division, and perhaps most disturbingly, a loss in the meaning in life for many people. It isn’t just harmful for individuals; it also fuels the larger polycrisis we face by undermining our ability to collaborate, innovate, and sustain a healthy relationship with our world.
Here are some of the most prevalent forms of modern alienation:
Social Alienation
Many people feel increasingly disconnected from the social groups that used to give them a sense of belonging. While social media seems to connect us, it actually deepens these divides, creating echo chambers where different perspectives aren’t usually celebrated. This divide makes it hard – if not impossible – to create the collective will that’s required to solve global problems. The ripple effect of failing to solve one issue, like social isolation, intensifies parallel issues, like political unrest or “othering.”
Cultural Alienation
As the world becomes more globalized, many people feel estranged from their cultural roots, especially if they live in environments where their culture is underrepresented or misunderstood. Losing your cultural identity can cause people to feel confused and like they don’t belong, weakening the social fabric that’s crucial to building cultural identity worth preserving. The erosion of cultural identity doesn’t just impact people, but it weakens our ability to draw on each other’s perspectives, which is crucial to navigate complex global problems.
Environmental Alienation
Urbanization and modern living have distanced us from the natural world, contributing to a growing environmental crisis. Many people feel disconnected from nature, leading to a lack of appreciation for the environment and a sense of being out of place in the world. This is a particularly deadly example of alienation: when people don’t feel connected to the earth, they’re less likely to try to protect it. We’re now caught in a vicious cycle, in which environmental destruction is perpetuating social and economic instability, and obliterating quality of life for many.
Personal Alienation
On a more intimate level, many people feel disconnected from themselves, and are living lives that don’t align with their values, wants, or actual needs. We can see it all around us, in each other, and ourselves, manifesting as depression, anxiety, and a deep sense of unfulfillment. When we’re disconnected from our inner selves, we’re less likely to engage in our world, weakening our capacity for empathy, creativity, and resiliency in the face of glaring global problems that need solving now.
Psychedelics as a Solution: Reconnecting to Combat a Global Polycrisis
Psychedelics offer a powerful solution. These compounds have shown remarkable potential in healing the mind and restoring crucial lost connections: socially, culturally, environmentally, and personally. By repairing these connections, we begin to lay the groundwork for solving some of the most destructive problems plaguing our planet today.
Repairing Social Connections: Building Resilient Communities and Relationships
Psychedelics can break down the barriers that fragment our communities. In communal settings, such as retreats or group ceremonies, psychedelics foster a sense of unity and shared experience.
Psychedelics can play a major role in mending fractured relationships: in families, between romantic partners, or even between nations. In romantic relationships, MDMA-assisted therapy has been shown to help couples reconnect and deepen their understanding of each other. On a larger scale, psychedelics could be used to overcome entrenched national dogmas, fostering mutual understanding and peace between nations. The historic Soviet-American science conference at Esalen is a prime example, when new age practices led to a vision of peace during the Cold War.
By rebuilding social connections, psychedelics can strengthen the communal ties necessary to address global challenges together.
Reviving Cultural Identity: Protecting Diversity in a Polycrisis World
Culturally, psychedelics are helping people all around the world reconnect with their roots and heritage.
Indigenous communities have used psychedelics like peyote and ayahuasca in ritualistic and medicinal contexts for centuries. And today, they’re being used to help ensure that Native American youth do not lose the connection to their heritage. Peyote remains a central sacrament to the Native American Church, and has been used successfully to reconnect Native Americans to their language through song and chanting (and reliable religious experiences). In addition to reconnecting many Indigenous people with their spirituality, ceremony is reconnecting them with their language, which is really important because it was lost for so many people as a result of colonization.
Reconnecting to your cultural identity doesn’t just help heal personal alienation, but also improves the diversity of perspectives and solutions needed to navigate the complexities of a globalized world facing multiple crises.
Psychedelics can foster a deep reconnection with the natural world. When people adopt a deep love of nature, it is, in theory, possible to solve colossal environmental problems.
Many who take psychedelics outdoors report a heightened awareness of their connection to the earth. It can inspire people to live more sustainably and commit to protecting the planet. By rekindling our connection to nature, psychedelics can help reverse the environmental destruction that fuels global polycrisis, promoting behaviors and policies that prioritize ecological balance, sustainability, and even regeneration.
A famed 2019 study by researchers Sam Gandy, Robin Carhart-Harris and others known as the Nature Relatedness Study. The findings suggest that psychedelic experiences can lead to significant and lasting changes in personality, particularly in terms of increased openness and nature relatedness. These changes may also be linked to shifts in political views, promoting more liberal and pro-environmental attitudes. This underscores the potential of psychedelics not only for individual growth but for broader societal impacts.
A 1966 study, Psychedelic Agents in Creative Problem-Solving, demonstrated how psychedelics helped scientists solve complex problems, leading to significant technological advancements. Imagine the potential if psychedelic-inspired innovation were applied to environmental sustainability or the development of new, greener technologies. By unlocking new ways of thinking, psychedelics can help us develop solutions that address the root causes of environmental crises, rather than just treating the symptoms.
Personal Reconnection: Empowering People For the Good of the Planet
On a personal level, psychedelics offer a powerful tool for self-reconnection, particularly in therapeutic settings. They can help individuals explore their shadow, confront unresolved trauma, and rediscover their true selves. This process of self-discovery and deep healing isn’t just transformative for the person, but has ripple effects that improve our capacity to address global challenges. When we’re more connected to ourselves, we’re more likely to engage meaningfully with the world around us.
Take the opioid crisis, for example. Psychedelics offer a promising alternative or addition to traditional pain management, and may drastically reduce chronic pain without the need for opioids. This could lead to a significant reduction in opioid use and addiction, alleviating the strain on healthcare systems and helping to reinvigorate families and communities.
We see the ripple effect of personal reconnection and doing deep inner work all over the psychedelic field; using the principles of Stan Grof, Carl Jung, and Internal Family Systems to help individuals participate in this adventure of self-discovery.
In fact, we’re offering our Vital students the chance to specialize in Somatics, Jung and Depth Psychology as part of their certification for the upcoming September cohort. We’re the first education program to offer this kind of specialization, which we think will be really crucial to helping people heal themselves and others.
The Transformative Global Potential of Psychedelics
The potential of psychedelics to heal and reconnect us, both personally and collectively, is immense. But we can only do it if we approach these substances with responsibility, respect, and a deep understanding of their power.
Philosopher Buckminster Fuller once said, “You do not belong to you. You belong to the universe.” Our role is to use our experiences to help others, and psychedelics provide us with the tools to do it.
Psychedelics can indeed reconnect us, inspire innovation and creativity, and help us solve complex polycrisis problems we face as a society. But most importantly, psychedelics remind us of our interconnectedness: that we are all part of a larger whole, and that our actions have ripple effects that extend far beyond ourselves.
Lykos’ psychedelic-assisted therapy model was meant to reinvent mental healthcare as we know it. Its PTSD protocol, which included preparation support, three guided MDMA therapy sessions, and integration counseling, took a bold step toward merging pharmacology with psychotherapy. But the FDA’s decision to reject it may force the psychedelic industry to pivot from resource-intensive and holistic to streamlined and pharma-friendly.
How We Got Here: Understanding the FDA’s Rejection
On Aug. 9, Lykos announced that the U.S. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rejected its new drug application (NDA) for MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD. The company’s press release was so matter-of-fact and measured that I had to read it twice to grasp the meaning.
Eventually, my eyes refocused on two sentences: “The FDA communicated that it had completed its review of the NDA and determined that it could not be approved based on data submitted to date. The FDA has requested that Lykos conduct an additional Phase 3 trial to further study the safety and efficacy of midomafetamine (MDMA).”
I’ve investigated the infamous MDMA hearing in prior articles, so I’ll spare the exhaustive details here. But to briefly recap, PDAC members who lacked psychedelic expertise said that Lykos’ statistically significant clinical data was unreliable. It determined the trials contained inherent design flaws and feared that alleged misconduct, although unsubstantiated, could have skewed the data. Nine of eleven panelists said the NDA was not ready for approval.
PDAC’s vote confused many advocates, who noted that Lykos followed the FDA’s draft psychedelic therapy FDA approval guidance. Others pointed out that MAPS and the FDA co-created the trial design through a Special Protocol Assessment in 2017.
In the FDA’s words, “We have completed our review and, based on the information submitted, agree that the design and planned analysis of your study adequately address the objectives necessary to support a regulatory submission.”
Dr. Scott Shannon, Principal Investigator in MAPS Phase 2 and 3 clinical trials, added that the FDA thoroughly investigated MAPS’s research sites during the trials to ensure proper data acquisition.
However, the advisory committee ignored these facts. Instead, they lamented over Lykos’ drug plus psychotherapy protocol, consistently questioning its validity and whether emotional support was even necessary alongside MDMA to alleviate PTSD. Worse, despite blatant contrary evidence, they asserted that MAPS’ FDA-aligned MDMA therapy protocol could do patients more harm than good.
Facing the Fallout: Lykos’ Next Steps
Lykos must now conduct a third Phase 3 clinical trial to overcome issues it thought were ironed out. The new trial will take at least two years and cost millions of dollars the team may not have.
In preparation, Lykos laid off 75% of its workforce, discontinued funding MDMA therapy research in Europe, and radically shifted its leadership team.
Rick Doblin, PhD, founder of Lykos’ non-profit parent company MAPS, resigned from the board shortly after the MDMA therapy FDA rejection.Doblin, a beloved psychedelic trailblazer and somewhat controversial figure, said his activist nature interfered with Lykos’ regulatory path. He will now pursue MAPS’ broader research, education, and policy reform goals.
Upon Doblin’s departure, Lykos hired a seasoned pharmaceutical executive, Dr. David Hough, to oversee the NDA’s next steps. In a recent press release, Lykos Chairman Jeff George said, “Dr. Hough is a consummate industry professional and exactly the right person to lead the crucial work of engaging with the FDA for our resubmission.”
Hough’s resume includes bringing Spravato (esketamine nasal spray) to market at Johnson & Johnson, where he led compound development and the medical, scientific, and regulatory processes.
Spravato is a ketamine-analog medication with dissociative psychedelic properties prescribed for major depressive disorder. The FDA approved Spravato’s NDA in 2019 with a protocol requiring patients first to prove that traditional antidepressants failed before becoming eligible for coverage.
Glaringly, Spravato’s application did not include therapeutic intervention, begging the question, could Hough have similar plans for MDMA?
A New Path for Psychedelic Therapy?
The future of psychedelic-assisted therapyremains uncertain. Doblin, among others, believes that Lykos will eventually bring MDMA therapy to the masses, but following the FDA rejection, he has grave concerns about the direction the industry might take.
On a recent Modern Enlightenment podcast by Ceremonia, he expressed fears that the FDA’s decision could have a chilling effect on future psychedelic NDAs, setting a hands-off precedent he deems immoral.
Doblin told Ceremonia, “We (MAPS) had suggestions that it might be interesting to do a study just giving people MDMA without any support, but Michael Mithoefer, our lead psychiatrist, myself, and others thought it would be unethical to do that.”
“…stuff comes up [on MDMA], and if you’re not capable of processing it, you can end up worse off,” he added.
Doblin also articulated why he believes MDMA alone is insufficient to extinguish PTSD.
He explained that 40% of Lykos’ clinical trial participants had previously tried MDMA recreationally before joining the study. If the drug alone were all they needed, these patients would’ve been cured of PTSD. But they weren’t. Many had suffered for years without relief. And it was the combination of MDMA plus psychotherapy that finally helped them achieve remission.
Doblin explained, “It’s not about the drug. It’s about how you process. And it also is not just about the drug experience. It’s about integration. It’s also about preparation. All of that is what contributes to the outcomes.”
In other words, the idea that a psychedelic experience alone can cure mental health issues ignores the complexities of trauma and the human psyche.
Nevertheless, the FDA skepticism about MDMA therapy means psychedelic NDAs may start to look like Spravato’s, or they may follow the “psychological support” approach that pharmaceutical companies Compass Pathways (Compass) and Mind Medicine (MindMed) are promoting.
“Profit-oriented companies like Compass are minimizing any psychotherapeutic angle. They just want [psychedelic medicine] to fit into the psycho-pharm model that people understand,” said Shannon.
He added, “I have to tell you that 95% of the people that I know in the psychedelic realm don’t believe in that {approach},” he added.
According to Shannon, “psychological support” means licensed therapists are on-site during drug administration. But instead of providing counseling intervention, they serve in more passive roles, stepping in only to prevent psychological harm when necessary.
“[This approach comes from] people stuck in the old ways. People who want something comfortable and not challenging. This is what fading, failing paradigms do. They try to prevent new ideas from coming in,” said Shannon.
Will Lykos Carry MDMA Therapy to the FDA Finish Line?
Lykos has vowed to bring this novel psychedelic medicine to the current regulatory framework. However, industry insiders think its new Phase 3 trial will introduce different study design elements that could render the original protocol unrecognizable.
At the very least, Lykos may need to shift from integrative, holistic therapies, like Internal Family Systems, Hakomi, and Holotropic Breathwork, to accepted “evidence-based approaches” like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) that fit neatly into the traditional medical structure. CBT can be effective for PTSD, but today’s mental health crisis proves it is remarkably substandard.
Amid the tug-of-war between innovation and convention, I fear psychedelic-assisted therapy, as we now know it, may be headed toward extinction. But I won’t mourn its passing. Instead, I’ll see this phase as a metamorphosis—where the old form dissolves, making way for a model that adapts to today’s framework while (hopefully) preserving the transformative essence of psychedelic healing.
If you told a person 20 years ago that you were looking to make a career in psychedelics, they would typically look back at you nonsensically. Today, however, there is a burgeoning legal psychedelic industry and people are doing just that. The sector took a kick recently, with MDMA-assisted therapy denied approval and biotech Lykos Therapeutics subsequently cutting 75% of its staff following the decision. But optimism is still high – it’s never been a better time to work in psychedelics and many people are carving out careers in the field.
“The psychedelic field is attracting a really diverse range of professionals,” said AnnaRae Grabstein, the CEO of consultancy firm Wolf Meyer. “There are not just the traditional pathways to providing support and integration for people that want to experience psychedelics, but there’s all of the wraparound businesses that support the psychedelic space. By integrating psychedelic knowledge into existing careers, businesses are broadening their practices.”
Here are some of the leading psychedelic jobs in 2024:
1. Private Practice Facilitators
Need a tripsitter or a private ceremony? There’s probably someone in your area for that. In the recent Psychedelics Today report on the emerging psychedelic workforce surveying students and graduates of the Vital program, more than 80% said they were already involved, or planned to be, in private practice.
“This is indicative of the growing number of therapists and practitioners who see the value in offering psychedelic-assisted therapy or related services in a more personalized setting,” the report said.
Naturally, it is only kosher in places in the U.S. which have effectively decriminalized the possession and use of certain psychedelics.
“I wanted to train in psychedelic facilitation because of my background in counseling,” said Lianna Tullis-Robinson, a recent graduate of the Vital program. “It seems as though the overall field of psychology is venturing into this integration of psychedelics for treatment. As a Black, female psychologist, I wanted to make sure I was involved.”
2. Psychedelic Event Organizer
In places where psychedelics are effectively decriminalized, an ecosystem of psychedelic-focused events is popping up and beginning to thrive. In Vancouver, with an organization called The Flying Sage, there are regular events such as ganja yoga classes, 4-AcO-DMT and huachuma breathwork sessions, integrations circles, ecstatic dances, and much more.
“I feel like the Flying Sage is uniquely contributing to the psychedelic ecosystem as a whole because we’re offering an alternative method of access to psychedelics,” said founder Michael Oliver, on a recent Instagram video. “We’re really demonstrating what community-powered psychedelics looks like.”
3. Psychedelic Biotech Company Employee
Think of it like a regular pharmaceutical company, just a bit smaller, and with psychedelics instead of opiates and benzodiazepines. Naturally, there are all manner of jobs available in organizations like Atai and Compass – such as administrative staff, lab technicians, managerial roles, and much more – though they, like Lykos, recently consolidated their businesses and laid off staff.
“After I completed the 12-month Vital program, I went on to build a biotech company in the psychedelic space,” said Kaitlin Roberson, the founder of Cacti Therapeutics. “We’re focused on addressing the root causes of people’s chronic pain and inflammation.”
4. Psychedelic Scientist
Biotechs also hire scientists to help them develop novel psychedelic drugs and to design and run clinical trials. Psychedelic scientists also work as educators, giving talks and seminars. Almost a quarter of survey respondents said they were working in research-oriented settings, reflecting how a key segment of professionals in the psychedelic space are dedicated to pushing the boundaries of our knowledge about psychedelics and their therapeutic potential.
“Being a psychedelic neuroscientist is truly a fascinating journey into a cutting edge frontier,” wrote Manesh Girn, who works at UC San Francisco and is chief research officer at Entheotech, on Instagram recently. “Beyond grateful to be living the dream!”
5. Mushroom Cultivator
A few companies have sprung up manufacturing psychedelics. Some grow the mushrooms, rather than producing psilocybin from scratch, saying that the fruiting bodies are the most efficacious version of the fungi. Scott Marshall, head of mycology at Optimi Health, is one of few ex-legacy mushroom growers to now be a licensed psilocybe cultivator.
“It’s going to have a super therapeutic effect on the world,” he told Vice.
His colleague Dr. Preston Chase is in charge of creating MDMA for the company. “I’ve definitely had some ‘Walter White’ moments holding up the flask and filtering off white powder containing hundreds of MDMA doses, but this is medicine,” he said.
6. Psychedelic Reform Advocate
Organizations like MAPS, Heroic Hearts, Reason to Hope, VETS, and others, continue to lobby policymakers in D.C. and elsewhere to ease the laws controlling the research and use of psychedelics. These organizations have staff who effectively work as lobbyists, helping prepare bills, and having meetings with politicians.
“I feel like if we can really put our heads down and add to the body of research so that we can advocate for these therapies to be available inside the borders of the country that these veterans chose to defend, then we can not only help them in a more meaningful way, we can end the veteran suicide epidemic, and hopefully these therapies will be available to all Americans in due time, because they really are saving lives,” Amber told Psychedelics Today.
7. Retreat Center Manager
A psychedelic retreat is the new wellness getaway. Americans are heading to Costa Rica, Mexico, Jamaica and elsewhere in droves to spend several days in paradise (and ceremony) for intensive psychedelic or holistic experiences. Retreat centers, which are now dotted around those countries and sometimes better resemble medical clinics, do not only need managers who make sure everything is running on schedule and that the property is maintained. They need nurses, cooks, cleaners, facilitators, supporting staff, therapists and many other attendants to assist guests. Almost 70% of people surveyed said they were interested in working at retreat centers. A gray market has also developed in the U.S., while several churches also have the right to use certain psychedelics as sacraments.
After finishing her professional training in 2023, Jessika Lagarde began working for the Microdosing Institute in the Netherlands as a co-facilitator.
“I expanded not just my direct work with people, but also in education. I’m really bringing all the sides of me to this work,” she said.
8. Psychedelic Media, Marketing, and Content
New media companies such as DoubleBlind, Lucid News, psychedelics.com, Reality Sandwich (and Psychedelics Today!) employ full-time staff working in editorial and production. These organizations are embedded in the psychedelic space and create content including videos, podcasts and articles that may often be considered too niche for the mainstream media, but are of great interest to psychonauts and the psychedelic curious. There are also publicists working exclusively within the psychedelic space, tasked with getting certain stories into the media.
Have you been noticing polished psychedelic branding, captivating social content, and slick-looking mushroom packaging floating around recently? Boutique marketing firms and freelancers have sprung up all over the world, many talented creative pros moving over from big marketing agencies, consumer packaged goods companies, and regulated industries like cannabis and pharma to focus on psychedelics. Some offer social strategy, while others focus on target market profiling, email marketing, or branding.
9. Integration Specialist
Retreat centers and clinics are hiring integration specialists to work with them full-time, as they have steady streams of new clients, who often receive several hours of one-on-one or group integration support following their intensive experiences. The psychedelic community as a whole is yet to agree on a single protocol for integration – and perhaps never will – and it can often take different forms depending on the person. Many people already trained in other forms of therapy and counseling are taking psychedelic integration courses with organizations like Psychedelics Today and Being True To You and are now offering their services.
“Integration is an ongoing process,” said Kyle Buller, Co-Founder of Psychedelics Today. “Typically, people like to think about psychedelic integration as working with the experience post-session, but I also like to view it as the process to work with any material that’s coming up pre-session. The process begins when you pay attention to what is showing up.”
10. Psychedelic Lawyer
As psychedelic churches and dispensaries pop up, mostly working in legal gray areas, the need for lawyers specializing in drug law has perhaps never been greater. Organizations such as nonprofits Sacred Plant Alliance, Ayahuasca Defense Fund, and others, work to help defend the right to the religious use of psychedelic sacraments, while many churches and individuals employ their own legal support teams.
“The way I came to this was working with a psychedelic church and realizing there should be more information out there for churches to clearly understand what it means to have to defend yourself with respect to what your religious beliefs are under the law,” said Allison Hoots, the head counself for the New York Psilocybin Action Committee, in an Instagram video.
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In July 2022, a story sent shockwaves through the psychedelic community: an Indiana nurse and mother of five was about to be sentenced to 10 years in prison for growing mushrooms after she’d learned that microdosing psilocybin might improve her 20-year struggle with treatment-resistant depression.
Jessica Thornton (who now goes by Jessica Fitzmaurice) was charged with two felonies: dealing a scheduled substance and child endangerment. After an intervention from Tarin Hale, an Ohio lawyer who eventually became her legal advisor and helped her hire new counsel, she was given a suspended prison sentence and placed on 18 months’ probation with 180 days of house arrest. Eventually, her charges were reduced to a misdemeanor—something she refers to today as “a triumph.”
Two years later, the case is a shining representation of the jarring legal dichotomy in the United States when it comes to psychedelics; one in which a patchwork of county and state laws is in stark contrast with federal regulations that continue to classify psilocybin and other psychedelics as Schedule I substances (this means they possess “a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in treatment, and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision”).
From within the psychedelic echo chamber, it might feel like psychedelics are widely accepted, but the fact is, psychedelics are illegal in far more jurisdictions than they are not.
Shortly after the story was broken in Psychedelic Spotlight, readers shared their thoughts on Twitter (now known as X), describing the case as “shameful” and “pure insanity.” On a Reddit post in the subreddit r/Indiana, her actions were dubbed a “victimless crime.” Many had choice words for elected officials in Indiana, where psychedelic drug laws have not yet caught up to the sweeping changes that have occurred in other jurisdictions. In neighboring state Michigan, for example, criminal enforcement of the possession and use of psychedelics has been deprioritized in five cities, including Detroit and Ann Arbor.
During her probationary period, Fitzmaurice was unable to speak with the media about her case. For the first time since July 2022, she is breaking her silence. In an exclusive interview, she told Psychedelics Todayjust how profoundly the case has impacted her life—and how she’s moving forward.
Living with Treatment-Resistant Depression
A neonatal nurse and mother of five, Fitzmaurice did not take the decision to start microdosing psilocybin lightly. After decades of being on a series of antidepressants, in 2022, she says she hit rock bottom.
“I felt like I had gone down every avenue of conventional mental health options. I was on pill after pill with combinations of medications,” Fitzmaurice said. “I was working hard as a travel nurse to support my children. I felt empty, I felt nothingness, and I felt numb. I started having suicidal thoughts and could not accept that there was nothing else out there to help.”
On traditional antidepressants, her feelings and emotions were suppressed, and the side effects that came with them were unbearable.
“I experienced anxiety, trembling, hyperhidrosis, inability to orgasm, numbness of the soul, and diminished creativity and connection with no true love for life. The list goes on,” she explained.
Along with contemplating suicide, Fitzmaurice was regularly having panic attacks and would often break out in hives. Her debilitating struggle with depression deeply impacted her role as a mother.
“I felt as if what I could give wasn’t enough,” she said. “I was not confident in myself. I felt I was out of reach emotionally to my children at times.”
When a friend told her about the success they experienced with microdosing, Fitzmaurice became intrigued. She dove into available research, explored the psilocybin studies being published at Johns Hopkins University, and listened to different podcasts discussing psychedelics.
Several studies indicate psilocybin may very well have antidepressant effects. One 2022 study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology on the efficacy and safety of psilocybin-assisted treatment for major depressive disorder found that two doses of psilocybin alongside supportive therapy produced “large and stable antidepressant effects” among participants for at least one year following treatment—well beyond the established duration of antidepressant effects reported with ketamine (about two to three weeks).
When it comes to microdosing psilocybin (a practice that involves taking small, sub-perceptual doses of the classic psychedelic regularly to enhance mood or creativity), although there is much hype, the science is largely considered inconclusive as most studies rely on self-reported data. One 2022 study published in Nature compared a group of microdosers to non-microdosers and found, “small to medium-sized improvements in mood and mental health that were generally consistent across gender, age, and presence of mental health concerns.”
Microdosing Psilocybin Mushrooms: A (Risky) Last Resort
What Fitzmaurice learned was enough to convince her to give microdosing a try. She opted to grow her own mushrooms, assuming the process would be safer than trying to find psilocybin on the street.
“I was so desperate to feel better and the research was so positive that I gave very little thought about the legal implications of growing psilocybin mushrooms for microdosing,” she admitted. “I was only focused on the potential benefits. I believed in the sincerity of what I was doing to save my life.”
After Fitzmaurice started microdosing psilocybin, she began to feel different: for the first time in years, she felt content and confident in her life and body. She felt the emotional weight of work, raising children, and societal standards begin to lift from her shoulders.
“I was able to mentally move on from what had previously held me back. I felt less pressured, less anxious, and actually curious about the possibilities that lie ahead,” she said. “I started doing the things I loved to do.”
She began spending more time with her children, and even became involved in a local mountain biking team, planning trips and adventures with her family. With no intention of stopping, she gave up caffeine and eventually ceased taking her attention deficit disorder medication. Although she didn’t tell them about the microdosing psilocybin until after she was arrested, close family members told Fitzmaurice that they noticed she seemed happier.
Fitzmaurice said she’s embarrassed she wasn’t more aware of the potential legal ramifications of growing psilocybin mushrooms.
“Although I understood that certain mushrooms were illegal, I had no idea that growing mushrooms to treat depression would be seen as a level two felony with a potential prison sentence of 10 to 30 years,” she said.
Courtney Barnes is a partner at Feldman Legal Advisors, where she provides a variety of services to the psychedelic ecosystem, including support with regulatory compliance and risk management. She told Psychedelics Today that Fitzmaurice’s case highlights the ongoing tension between the growing recognition of psychedelics’ potential therapeutic benefits and their strict and outdated classification in the legal system. That blatant conflict continues to put people like Fitzmaurice in a tough spot.
“The varying legal statuses across states lead to confusion, unequal treatment of individuals based on geography, and challenges in creating consistent public health policy,” said Barnes.
“This case underscores the legal risks faced by individuals who, in the absence of legal medical alternatives, turn to psychedelics for self-treatment. It also reflects societal ambivalence, where some see her actions as criminal, while others view them as a necessary and reasonable response to mental health challenges.”
Fitzmaurice said when police came crashing through the front door of her Indiana home to arrest her, her entire world came down along with it. She felt betrayed, violated, hopeless, and misunderstood upon learning she faced prison time and potentially the loss of the custody of her children.
“The most difficult part of facing potential prison time was the fact that I was going to miss out on watching my children grow up,” she said.
How Jessica Built a New Case
Fitzmaurice’s first lawyer failed to help her build a case, and after requesting several delays in court proceedings, he advised that she plead guilty to the felonies. Feeling she had no other option, she took his advice.
Hale caught wind of her story just two weeks before Fitzmaurice was set to be sentenced. A lawyer with a deep personal connection to and understanding of psychedelics, he was appalled by the case and eager to help. Out of desperation, he reached her through the organizer of a GoFundMe campaign, launched to help cover Fitzmaurice’s legal fees.
“It was basically a done deal, but I had to reach out,” Hale said. “Here’s a woman who is 40 years old, with 20 years of documented anxiety and depression untreated by pharmaceuticals, thrown into this situation and she was scared, so she took the deal.”
When they finally spoke by phone, Fitzmaurice had already given up hope and was preparing to spend the next 10 years of her life in prison. After several conversations and with Hale’s help, she fired her lawyer and hired a new attorney, Andrew Maternowski.
Hale said he knew that whoever represented Fitzmaurice would have to provide the prosecutor with some education on the safety and efficacy of microdosing psilocybin, and a better understanding of why she was growing mushrooms.
“When they arrested her, they came in wearing hazmat suits to avoid breathing the spores, which they thought would intoxicate them, so it was like starting from scratch,” he said.
Since her previous lawyer had failed to explain why Fitzmaurice was growing mushrooms, “the prosecutor thought she was this major drug dealer poisoning kids,” something they would have to change his mind on.
Together, Maternowski and Hale built a new case with letters of support from several experts, including researcher and author Jim Fadiman, psychologist and professor Dr. Alan Davis, psychiatric nurse practitioner Andrew Penn, and author and psychiatric nurse practitioner CJ Spotswood. The letters helped convince the prosecutor that Fitzmaurice was not a drug dealer, and Maternowski negotiated a plea agreement that would reduce the charge from trafficking to possession; from 10 years in prison to three months of house arrest and 18 months of probation. The judge later reduced the charge to a misdemeanor.
Legal Implications and Potential Reforms: Education is ‘Paramount’
Fitzmaurice’s case could have a nuanced influence on future prosecutions and defenses related to the use of Schedule I substances for personal medicinal use in the United States, according to Barnes.
“The fact that the prosecutor reduced the charges after reviewing her case and expert testimony indicates a recognition of the complexities involved in cases where individuals use Schedule I substances like psilocybin for self-treatment,” she said, adding that this outcome might encourage defense attorneys in future cases to present similar arguments.
Barnes also said the reduction in charges and comparatively lenient sentence could serve as a signal to both prosecutors and judges that, under certain circumstances, harsher penalties might not be warranted.
Several different approaches to drug policy reform could help prevent cases like this one from happening again, according to Barnes, who suggested that decriminalization of possession, production, and use of psychedelics could reduce the burden on the criminal justice system and allow more resources to be allocated toward public health approaches. Pairing decriminalization with legal access pathways, such as Colorado’s Natural Medicine Health Act, “is also a wise approach,” said Barnes.
At the federal level, she suggested that the reclassification of psilocybin and other psychedelics from Schedule I to a less restrictive schedule, “would more appropriately reflect [their] medical use in treatment in the U.S. and could reduce the severity of criminal penalties for use and possession.”
As more people turn to psychedelics and practices like microdosing psilocybin for their mental health, Barnes noted that although it is sparsely reported, there has been an increase in law enforcement seizures of psilocybin mushrooms.
“The growing public awareness about the potential benefits of psychedelics has resulted in a surge of people seeking out these substances,” said Barnes. “There have been a handful of reports indicating that arrests for psilocybin have increased over the past several years, likely, at least in part, resulting from an increase in demand for it.”
Barnes has also noticed an increase in regulatory confusion, especially in states like California, where an unregulated psychedelic market is currently thriving. She said the number of times she’s heard people confidently state psilocybin is legal there is “alarming.”
“There are harsh penalties for psilocybin possession in California, even if the law is sporadically enforced,” said Barnes. “As more localities and states adopt policy reform in a patchwork, the more likely it is for people to misunderstand the laws that apply to them. Public education is paramount here.”
How Jessica—and the State of Indiana—are Moving Forward
Despite the immense loss she has experienced, Fitzmaurice looks forward with a sense of hope. “I lost so many important aspects of my life: my children, my job, my career, and even my community, my hometown. Now’s the time to start rebuilding all of that.”
Now living in Arkansas, Fitzmaurice is committed to sharing her story with others and conveying the need for drug policy reform, especially in states like Indiana. As a recipient of a Psychedelics Today Vital psychedelic training program scholarship, she is eager to put her knowledge of and experience with psychedelics to use as a nurse. She intends to go back to school to become a psychiatric nurse practitioner so she can work with psychedelics in a legal manner. She is currently assisting at a ketamine-assisted therapy clinic and plays an active role in Decriminalize Nature Northwest Arkansas.
To help treat her depression, Fitzmaurice underwent ketamine-assisted psychotherapy and said with preparation, integration, and community support, she now has many tools that help her work through her trauma, “with a positive mindset.”
“The contemporary mental health treatment model may work for some people, and that’s fantastic. It doesn’t work for everyone, including me,” said Fitzmaurice. “I didn’t realize how badly we, as a global unit, were in a mental health crisis. Psychedelics opened my eyes to this and now, the nurse in me just wants to help.”
Since Fitzmaurice’s case made headlines in 2022, the legal status of psilocybin in Indiana remains unchanged—but that doesn’t mean Indiana lawmakers are ignoring it.
In March 2024, Indiana Governor Eric Holcomb signed a psilocybin research funding bill with a focus on veterans and first responders. Fitzmaurice called it “a great introduction” and said she’s hopeful psychedelics might soon be destigmatized in her home state, but said it’s unlikely the law will change in Indiana unless psilocybin is rescheduled at the federal level.
“People shouldn’t have to risk losing their life to prison for trying to care for their own mental health,” said Fitzmaurice. “These medicines need to be decriminalized or rescheduled at the very least. Humanity should not be punished for prioritizing mental health.”
Somatic therapy and psychedelics are proving to be mutually beneficial as the psychedelic revival evolves. Somatic therapy can unlock deeper levels of healing and trauma release inaccessible by psychedelics alone. And at the same time, somatic therapy can set the table for someone who is not quite ready for a psychedelic journey.
Whether they’re new to the psychedelic field or not, most people have a basic understanding of what psychedelics are and what they do. However, many people are unfamiliar with somatic therapy. Thus, even fewer understand the intersection between somatic therapy and psychedelics. Before exploring the interplay further, let’s address the obvious question first.
What is Somatic Therapy?
According to Harvard Health somatic therapy is “… a treatment focusing on the body and how emotions appear within the body. Somatic therapies posit that our body holds and expresses experiences and emotions, and traumatic events or unresolved emotional issues can become ‘trapped’ inside.”
Somatic therapy, or just simply ‘somatics,’ is a topic that covers significant breadth and depth. Somatics is not one thing, but many different training programs teach it, and unique practitioners practice it with distinct approaches.
Two notable therapists, Peter Levine and Bessel van der Kolk, specialize in trauma and psychedelics under the somatic umbrella.
“It is the result of the multidisciplinary study of stress physiology, psychology, ethology, biology, neuroscience, Indigenous healing practices, and medical biophysics,” Levine says.
Dutch psychiatrist, researcher and author Bessel van der Kolk has made significant contributions to the somatic therapy field as well. His book The Body Keeps the Score describes how a group of therapists and scientists struggled to integrate recent advances in brain science, attachment research, and body awareness into treatments that “can free trauma survivors from the tyranny of the past.” Van der Kolk’s work has brought much-needed attention to how trauma gets trapped or “stuck” in the body, and is often referenced in the psychedelic field.
Besides somatic experiencing, a variety of methods exist to address trapped trauma in the body. Some of them include body awareness, pendulation, titration and resourcing among others. So who might benefit from somatics?
Who Benefits From Somatic Therapy?
People suffering from anxiety, complicated grief, depression, PTSD, self-esteem problems and other challenges can find healing benefits from somatic therapy.
Often these unsettling feelings manifest in the body in crippling ways. These unwelcome feelings, anxiety and stress may lead to lack of concentration, sleep complications, muscle tension, stiffness, etc. Over a long period of time, these physical maladies put tremendous wear and tear on the body, and can lead to the manifestation of chronic pain and illness.
As van der Kolk says, “the body doesn’t lie.” These debilitating physical conditions are symptomatic of the underlying stuck or blocked psychic energy. So anyone with entrenched experiences, feelings or traumas causing corporal pain can benefit from somatic therapy. Somatic therapy works to disempower these emotions. But how do these unwanted emotions become unwelcome guests in the body?
How Animals Have an Advantage Over Humans
Levine made one of the biggest advancements in somatics by studying animals. By observing animals, Levine came to the conclusion that animals have an ability to discard or brush off psychic distress. Think of a dog shaking off water. Animals seem to have an innate ability to neutralize trauma after escaping a predator. Not possessing this ability would compromise their survival instincts and threaten an existential crisis. However, humans don’t appear to have the same set of skills.
Somatic therapy focuses on the nervous system as its foundation. The human nervous system does not respond like the nervous system of animals.
“Animals complete the whole threat cycle. They go through the whole thing. They discharge that energy,” Kara Tremain, ACC explains.
Bonnijane Monson, DPT concurs, and explains further. “You’re looking for saber-toothed tigers around you. You have to be aware of all the saber-toothed tigers in the area, because the saber-toothed tigers can potentially harm you. But if you’re looking for external saber-toothed tigers, you don’t care if you’re hungry. You don’t care if you’re sleepy. You don’t care about the signals happening in your body that are trying to tell you what you need because your biggest concern at that moment is safety. So we lose interoception which is the internal knowing and sensing of what we need and want. So what we teach in somatics is to increase interoception.”
In a way, somatic therapy teaches us to regain our animal instincts and reclaim our bodies again. We have to teach our bodies that we are no longer in threat. However, if a person is stuck in deep trauma, in a flight, fight, or freeze response for example, they may not benefit from other therapy types.
Where Somatic Therapy and Psychedelics Intersect
For some people with deep, embodied trauma, somatic therapy may be the skeleton key that unlocks it.
For example, a person may not be getting results from traditional psychotherapy. In a case like this, the body transforms into a psychic sentinel and does not allow passage to the origin of the pain.
“You can talk about it all day long, but your body is still going through the experience,” Monson says.
The nervous system is the ideal starting point for somatics, Tremain says.
“… You really can’t do the bigger, deeper work if you’re stuck in a trauma pattern.”
In this case psychedelics may not be the ideal solution – yet.
Undergoing somatic therapy may be a necessary pre-game step, leading up to a psychedelic experience. The need for somatic therapy shows up in psychedelic settings in slightly different ways.
Somatic Therapy as a Psychedelic Precursor
Because most people are unfamiliar with somatic therapy, chances are a therapist will recommend it to them for the first time. Perhaps a traditional psychotherapist has encountered a blockage in someone that talk therapy can’t resolve. In this case, a psychedelically informed therapist might also deduce that the timing for a psychedelic journey is not right either.
“Unless there is a real orientation to the body, you can spend the whole psychedelic session in your mind, just processing things from a mind perspective. An orientation with the body changes things,” Tremain says.
Sometimes severe trauma can reduce the benefits of psychedelic medicine, despite the medicine’s potency. In this case, somatic therapy prior to a psychedelic session may help someone prepare for a journey. Tremain emphasizes that her goal is to get people to do somatic work before they engage in a psychedelic session.
Somatic Therapy in Underground Psychedelic Settings
Many people attending underground psychedelic retreats and ceremonies may not know about somatic therapy. However, people with severe, nervous system-based traumas may still seek them out, and may not be aware that their body is keeping the score. Thus underground retreat leaders, practitioners, and guides, need to prepare for these scenarios and seek expert-level training to help support those who may come to the circle with unresolved somatic trauma.
Monson points out the risk stating, “With different memories or experiences are going to come sensations from the body. And if somebody is not prepared to experience the intensity of what is happening in their body, it can feel really scary and a lot of fighting and struggle can happen as a result of what’s showing up in a psychedelic experience.” Some may interpret this as a “bad trip” when in reality a tough experience may be an indication that a person needs somatic therapy. It boils down to a matter of comfort.
“If somebody feels more comfortable being present and can stay there a longer period of time, the amount of struggle is less and the integration afterward is much easier because they already know how to process that through a somatic approach,” Monson explains.
How Somatic Therapy and Psychedelics Complement Each Other
Somatic therapy and psychedelics can be like a training ground to the playing field of the psyche. As an individual undertakes a journey of deep, personal work, layers of the psyche peel back. This reveals more profound levels of psychic projects underneath. However, sometimes a person’s body isn’t quite ready for the psychedelic playing field.
“Somatics prepares someone to stay in their body and work through, or be with, whatever shows up,” Munson says.
Whether it’s emotional or physical pain, or different memories and experiences, somatics prepares a person to take on these challenging moments. The glamorization of psychedelics can mislead people to believe that challenging experiences are throwaways. In fact, these difficult experiences may provide the richest rewards.
A quick dip into a psychedelic-adjacent field reveals “the bad” often seeds and nourishes personal development. German philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche proposed the idea of “post-traumatic growth.” He was way ahead of his time in 1888. He also aided the progress of psychology with his idea. Through the lens of post-traumatic growth, somatic therapy opens, sets and tends the psychedelic playing field.
“A big part of this work is learning to be with uncomfortable sensations and to be with discomfort. It’s about learning to be with discomfort so you can process it. The more you can be with it, the easier it is to process. The more you’re not over-responsive to something, the more settled your body is, you can actually see things and process things that come up in a psychedelic space,” Tremain explains.
In this way, somatic therapy gives a person the tools to graduate to the psychedelic big leagues, and artfully manage challenging experiences.
Somatics and Psychedelics: Unlocking the Treasure Within
The psychospiritual healing process often plays out like a locked treasure chest containing more locked treasure chests. Everyone has unique treasure chests, sizes, shapes, and locks requiring distinct keys to open. Somatic therapy provides another key to opening the next chest. Anyone with psychedelic experience knows how journeys can elicit profound visceral reactions. Without a body-centered approach to psychedelic journeys, a person may short-circuit their healing process and shortchange their full healing potential.
What is spiritual emergence? As the psychedelic resurgence continues to gain momentum and the term is gaining more visibility, many are asking this question. The phenomenon of spiritual emergence isn’t new, however – it predates contemporary awareness by millenia.
The term first appeared in Grof’s 1989 book Spiritual Emergency: When a Personal Transformation Becomes a Crisis. Defined by Grof, it is “the movement of an individual to a more expanded way of being that involves enhanced emotional and psychosomatic health, greater freedom of personal choices, and a sense of deeper connection with other people, nature, and the cosmos.” The current psychedelic moment makes the concept more apropos than ever.
It’s also important to note the distinct, yet subtle difference between spiritual emergence, and ‘spiritual emergency’(both terms will be referenced throughout this article). Intentionally constructed as a play on words, the term ‘emergency’ indicates crisis, all the while containing within it the term ‘emergence,’ pertaining to the process by which something becomes known or visible, implying that both – crisis and opportunity – can arise.
When Does Spiritual Emergence Occur?
Spiritual emergence is a spontaneous phenomenon, so predicting it with precision is impossible. Yet, moments do exist in which spiritual emergence may be more probable, either on a collective or individual basis.
A collective moment is occurring right now, says Michelle Anne Hobart, MA, SEC, AMFT, who believes this is a “time of great revealing.” As the world’s uncertainty and confusion ramp up, it’s hard to deny this.
“If we delude ourselves into thinking that we’re not all on the cusp of spiritual emergency then we’re not understanding the zeitgeist of our times; meaning that this is a really evolutionarily big, nodal point. So I think there’s a lot working on us all right under the surface,” Hobart says.
As the world changes around us, sometimes to a discomforting extent, we’re obligated to adapt in a psychospiritual manner. But spiritual emergence doesn’t require a collective nudge to occur.
“There’s a psychospiritual crisis that is unfolding and it’s also an opportunity to emerge, possibly like a new state of consciousness,” says Kyle Buller, Psychedelics Today Co-Founder and Vice President of Education and Training.
What is Spiritual Emergence from an Individual Perspective?
If the zeitgeist doesn’t promote spiritual emergence, an individual may also experience an acute event. Spontaneous spiritual emergence may be induced by a variety of methods, including but not limited to: meditation, yoga, breathwork, float therapy, psychedelic compounds, etc. Other atypical events may provoke a spiritual awakening or crisis that may be less predictable, and not the result of a spiritual practice.
“People can have these spiritual emergencies through substances, kundalini awakenings, unitive experiences, paranormal and UFO experiences. Some of these are spontaneous experiences and other times they’re induced by substances,” says Buller, who understands the phenomenon from first-hand experience. He endured a near-death experience as a teenager, which kick-started his exploration of consciousness and non-ordinary experiences.
Spiritual emergence can be seen in a variety of situations, including:
Near-death experiences or rebirth sequences
Mythological and archetypal phenomena (deity or “angel” experiences)
Past life sequences
Psychic opening (incidences of synchronicity or ESP)
Intense energetic phenomena (Kundalini or Kriyas)
Shamanic opening
Possession states (channeling or mediumship)
UFO encounters
As you can see (and depending on what you believe in), many of these circumstances can’t be brought about with intention. However, psychedelic compounds are the obvious exception (in that, an individual has control over when they consume a substance). So what is spiritual emergence in a psychedelic context?
What is Spiritual Emergence From a Psychedelic Perspective?
“(Psychedelics are) deep and powerful spiritual technologies. The intention of these medicines is to open us, is to create transformational opportunities, like catalysts. Psychedelics are like ‘buy the ticket, take the ride.’ Sometimes we don’t know what exactly is going to get lit up. We don’t know what’s going to get activated, in terms of the complexes, in terms of the archetypes,” Hobart explains.
It’s important to understand that when engaging with psychedelic compounds we’re performing a type of ‘soul surgery’ that can open us to infinite outcomes, and, potentially, get weird fast. Not all individuals possess the same capacity for psychic resilience that results in handling potentially destabilizing effects gracefully. The critical awareness of your own resilience can’t be overstated, whether in above ground or underground settings.
Anyone, whether they feel they’re on the cusp of a spiritual emergence or not, can have a spiritual awakening during or following a psychedelic journey. Anyone, whether they feel they’re mentally healthy or not, can have a spiritual emergency during a psychedelic journey or afterwards. This makes it imperative to provide a healthy system and a proper integration framework to handle such events. Psychedelic service providers need to be ready and prepared for these outliers.
“Sometimes we use the term ‘ontological shock’ – what happens when somebody’s belief system is just shaken to the core and they come back and have to rebuild what they believe about their reality and their truth,” says Buller.
For this reason, psychedelic integration is a profound and delicate time period, while a person’s psyche remains open and vulnerable to all possibilities. Think of this impressionable psyche like a dial from healthy integration, to spiritual emergence, to spiritual emergency.
What is Spiritual Emergency?
Spiritual emergency indicates that the process of spiritual growth (emergence) is reaching an unmanageable and overwhelming crisis state that inhibits a person’s ability to function in day-to-day life. As Grof notes, “In many cases, new realms of mystical and spiritual experience enter their lives suddenly and dramatically, resulting in fear and confusion. They may feel tremendous anxiety, have difficulty coping with their daily lives, jobs, and relationships, and may even fear for their own sanity.”
Through the Grofian lens a spiritual emergency may or may not indicate a serious mental health episode. Transpersonal psychology endeavors to bridge the gap between Indigenous shamanism and the Western mental health paradigm. This approach doesn’t relegate all spiritual crises to the mental health disorder category.
Rather, transpersonal psychology strives to understand and allow for subtlety. Where psychiatry may resort to immediate mental health care, medication, and even institutionalization, spiritual emergency entertains the possibility of enhanced consciousness. This can be tricky business indeed. The differentiation between psilocybin induced psychosis which requires traditional Western medical care and a shamanic opening can be hard to identify. However, this conundrum isn’t anything new, and perhaps we’re just going back to the future.
The Thin Mental Health Line
The transpersonal approach to spiritual emergency may be the West’s best attempt yet to integrate the mythology and traditions of Indigenous shamanism. This continues in the footsteps of Terrence McKenna who once said, “The shaman is not merely a sick man, or a madman; he is a sick man who has healed himself.” Because shamanism isn’t part of traditional Western culture, the practice has long provoked misunderstanding, and disbelief among outsiders.
The relationship between spirituality, madness, and healing embraces complexity. Thanks to Indigenous, ancestral wisdom gleaned over millennia, ancient cultures established the shaman as a key position in society, making them a central and indispensable figure.
Shamans live in a liminal space, with one foot in the Earthly realm, and the other foot in the spiritual realm as conduits between dimensions and realms of consciousness. This is no easy task, but it is in this exact space where the magic happens. American academic Joseph Campbell summed it up best by saying, “The psychotic drowns in the same waters in which the mystic swims with delight.
So if we choose to swim in these treacherous waters, what are the benefits?
The Benefits of Spiritual Emergence
Learning to swim in psychic tides can lead to positive outcomes. The experience can result in emotional and psychosomatic healing, creative problem-solving, personality transformation, and consciousness evolution.
“This fact is reflected in the term ‘spiritual emergency,’ which suggests a crisis, but also suggests the potential for rising to a higher state of being,” according to Grof.
When spiritual seekers and psychonauts have access to well-supported, ethical, and quality integrative settings and spaces, the spiritual crisis allows access to profound awareness. Clarity, sense of purpose, decision making, and intuition may also be improved. On its deepest level, spiritual emergence may even nurture connection to the divine. Divine resonance may stimulate tremendous creative outbursts.
A brief review of the history of literature and art over the centuries shows that many creative geniuses created seminal works after going on a psychedelic journey or experiencing a non-ordinary state. Aldous Huxley, Ken Kesey, The Beatles, Android Jones, Alex and Allyson Grey are a few contemporary examples.
The 3 Key Takeaways of What is Spiritual Emergence?
Be prepared: Are you prepared and willing to hear tortured sounds from your neighbor during an underground plant medicine ceremony? Or, even, to be the one making them? Or to emerge from a psychedelic experience that was intended to be fun and casual, but with your entire worldview turned upside down? In the throes and aftermath of taking powerful substances, anything can happen.
Think continuum: The boundaries and borders between mental health disorder, spiritual emergence, and spiritual emergency can be tough to define. They ebb and flow, as the experience rejects labels and entertains nuance and subtlety.
Ensure support is available: Since spiritual awakenings and crises are unique in nature and exist on a spectrum, aftercare must be adaptable and available, from loving support and a cozy environment, to professional medical intervention.
Do you feel called to explore what spiritual emergence is on a deeper level? Consider joining us for our fourth cohort of Vital, where students can specialize in spiritual emergence (the first specialization of its kind in any professional psychedelic training program). Applications are open now with limited seats available.
MAPS/Lykos’ MDMA trials for PTSD delivered overwhelmingly positive results. I thought that mattered until I sat through a nine-hour deliberation among the FDA’s Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee on June 4, including two hours of public comments that skewed anti-Lykos.
After a long day of groupthink, the panel advised the FDA that MDMA therapy was neither safe nor effective for patients with PTSD. And while their vote is nonbinding, their opinion significantly impacts the FDA’s final decision on Lykos’ new drug application.
So, how did the committee come to be? Were they up to the task of reviewing this historical application? And were their votes intellectually honest, given the failing mental healthcare system in the United States?
Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee: Who Are They?
The Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee (PDAC) consists of experts who provide independent advice to the FDA on the safety and efficacy of investigational drug products for psychiatric disorders. It consists of nine core voting members, including psychiatrists, neuropsychiatrists, consumer representatives, patient representatives, and one non-voting member, typically an industry representative.
Anyone can nominate themselves or others to PDAC. However, the FDA ultimately identifies and appoints candidates based on what they perceive as relevant expertise. Members serve one to four-year terms and attend several drug review hearings throughout the year.
The FDA also invites temporary voting members to certain meetings, bringing specialized expertise to address knowledge gaps in the core group. For the MDMA review, the FDA appointed six temporary members. But curiously, not one of them had specialized knowledge of psychedelic research or medicine.
Only one permanent PDAC voting member, Dr. Walter Dunn, holds a relevant background in psychedelic research. Dr. Dunn was also the only person to dissent from popular opinion, voting yes on both final questions:
Do the available data show that the drug is effective in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder?
Do the benefits of midomafetamine (MDMA) with FDA’s proposed risk evaluation and mitigation strategy (REMS) outweigh its risks for the treatment of patients with PTSD?
I don’t think the FDA purposely stacked the group against Lykos. But the committee’s lack of psychedelic expertise was grossly negligent, given the FDA’s goal of selecting experienced field experts. This novice lineup set the stage for a lopsided debate dominated by well-meaning status quo advocates who weren’t ready to unleash a transformative medicine they didn’t understand.
Kim O. Witczak, PDAC consumer representative, put it this way:
“Once you let the genie out of the bottle, you can’t put it back in.”
The Unprecedented Nature of the MDMA Review
To be fair, the committee faced an incredibly challenging task of reviewing the FDA’s first-ever new drug application (NDA) for a psychedelic compound.
Members received a data packet with MAPS clinical trials findings and the FDA’s concerns prior to the meeting. They may have also reviewed the critical ICER report and citizen petition that prompted the hearing. Together, these documents feasibly served as their first foray into psychedelic medicine before casting incredibly consequential votes affecting 13 million Americans with PTSD.
Additionally, it was the first NDA that merged a medicine, MDMA, with psychotherapy. The FDA does not regulate psychotherapy, so the committee had never seen such a proposal before. Until the MAPS MDMA trials for PTSD, they had only ever reviewed standalone prescription drugs.
This dual application caused distress and confusion as panelists struggled to reconcile their mandate with their desire to oversee the therapeutic aspect outside their jurisdiction. Admittedly, they were out of their wheelhouse, operating under a framework that didn’t adequately address the task at hand.
“Maybe it’s time to say we have to look at the current way that we’ve always approved and reviewed drugs differently,” Witczak said.
Resistance to the Therapeutic Component
With confusion looming, Lykos’ patient-directed therapy model was central to the panel’s skepticism throughout the hearing. They consistently questioned its validity and whether psychotherapy was even necessary alongside MDMA to alleviate PTSD.
In my discussion with Witczak, she reiterated the concerns that Lykos’ protocol wasn’t tested against “recognized therapies” or no therapy at all, leading to doubts about its credibility.
She’s right that Lykos didn’t compare its MDMA-AT model to status quo approaches, like Prolonged Exposure. They also didn’t study an MDMA-only group.
In hindsight, they should have, given the panel’s doubt about alternative therapies amplified by public accusations that Lykos is a therapy cult imposing spirituality onto patients. But hindsight won’t help now. At the time of the trial, the FDA had approved the inner healer method. Also, though Lykos didn’t explicitly test mainstream therapies, scientific data give us a clear picture of their effectiveness, according to Dr. Scott Shannon, Principal Investigator in MAPS Phase 2 and 3 clinical trials. Spoiler alert: mainstream therapies are not performing great.
According to Dr. Shannon, about 50% of people in PTSD psychotherapy trials drop out immediately, and of the 50% that pursue it, only half get better.
“Our medications are even worse,” he said, adding that PTSD medicine hasn’t had a significant innovation in the last 23 years, and up to 17 veterans are taking their lives daily as a result.
Still, PDAC insisted that Lykos’ therapy was a significant X factor that might not be effective or safe.
Therapeutic Safety
A confirmed case of therapist misconduct within MAPS clinical trials exacerbated the panelists’ pushback. The case involved Meaghan Buisson, a participant in the phase-two trial, who filed a lawsuit against two MAPS therapists, Richard Yensen and Donna Dryer, alleging sexual assault and professional negligence. Buisson’s claims included video evidence showing the therapists physically restraining and spooning her during a session. Buisson moved near the therapists after the trial, where she alleges the abuse continued.
I’m not here to defend the therapists’ actions. I watched the MDMA session clip and was not ok with what I saw. I’m also uninterested in conjecture about what occurred between Buisson and Yensen after the clinical trial ended. No matter the details, this situation is a stain on the program, and the public needs to know about it so we can hold people accountable and prevent future harm.
At the same time, this inexcusable case does not erase MDMA-AT’s profound impact. For instance, Lykos’ second Phase III trial found that 71.2% of the MDMA cohort no longer held a diagnosis, compared to 47.6% in the placebo group. Additionally, its MDMA trials for PTSD had some of the lowest dropout rates in history.
We need to be able to hold two truths at once.
1. Psychotherapist misconduct is unacceptable. We must continue raising ethical standards, recording therapy sessions, and holding offenders accountable for their actions.
2. At the same time, about 7% of conventional male therapists admit to having sex with at least one patient, and no one is suggesting we ban talk therapy as a result. Lykos’ misconduct case represents a lower risk profile than the status quo, and people with PTSD deserve a treatment that works.
And not to beat a dead horse, but Dr. Shannon reminded me that the FDA has no mandate or interest in regulating psychotherapy. State licensing boards, professional associations, and the legal system assume that role.
Ultimately, the panel and public debated an issue that the FDA likely won’t factor into their final decision.
Broader Issues of Mistrust in the MAPS Clinical Trial
The FDA cares about drug safety and efficacy data. But the panel’s broad dialogue extended well beyond the numbers into downright mistrust.
“I was surprised because usually [a drug] is approved more quickly, or [the panel] doesn’t raise many concerns. But this meeting had much more discussion,“ said Witczak, who added that it was “good conversation.”
Another committee member said, “It felt strange to vote no when the p-value started with three zeros.”
A low p-value, typically below 0.05, suggests that the results did not occur by random chance. So, a P < 0.0001 value – which was present in the MAPS clinical trial – is extraordinarily statistically significant.
Members cited functional unblinding (inadvertent awareness of group assignments) and expectation bias (preconceived notions about MDMA) as reasons why they didn’t believe the results. Additionally, they floated rumors from the citizen petition that the trial’s principal investigators and therapists engaged in data manipulation.
I’ll be honest. I wondered whether their points held weight, given the fact that most people in the MDMA group knew they were on MDMA.
Dr. Shannon explained that despite functional unblinding, the trial exhibited a significant effect size of 0.9. Effect size quantifies the magnitude of the treatment’s impact compared to placebo. Moderate effect sizes range from 0.4 to 0.6, according to Dr. Shannon, who explained that the best we for current SSRIs is a dismal 0.23.
“Even if our (MDMA-AT) effect size only turned out to be half of what we measured, it’s still much better than [the current treatments],” said Dr. Shannon.
But what about the potential fraud in MDMA trials for PTSD?
“I know several sites, and I know they did nothing untoward, nothing malicious, nothing underhanded. We knew we had to perform at the highest level of ethical and scientific investigation, and that’s what we did.”
Dr. Shannon added that FDA investigators were at his site for a week and had visited most sites throughout the clinical trial.
“We have been scrutinized to a high degree and stand by our data.”
Dr. Shannon could be wrong about the integrity of other actors in the trial. Some shenanigans may have occurred, and if they did, we need to question every single outcome.
However, such accusations are grave and rely on the FDA to investigate and determine their validity. The advisory panel meeting was not the format to litigate, yet the panel members clearly factored these stories into their votes.
Trying to Keep the Genie in the Bottle
MDMA-assisted therapy will revolutionize mental health treatment and society as we know it. I see that as broadly beneficial and necessary. But what do I know? I’m just one anecdote.
The data matter more than my opinion or that of any naysayer. But almost no committee member could speak to it with authority or provide any context on decades of historical MDMA therapy use. Without such a person, I witnessed the panel circle the drain in unison until they concluded they weren’t ready to let the genie out of the bottle.
I believe most members voted no out of genuine concern, like Watzeck, who said she entered the meeting with hope and optimism before the pervasive criticism impacted her vote. But others may have arrived with a pre-packaged vote.
“I would say some probably had biases. They may never agree to [MDMA therapy],” said Watzeck.
And that right there encapsulates why a committee hearing stacked with psychedelic novices could not come to an intellectually honest decision despite what may have been an utterly genuine effort.
Why the Political and Social Reality Might Supercede the Rejection
Fortunately, the FDA’s decision is not made in a vacuum.
Witczak thinks the FDA may still approve MDMA-AT despite the panel’s concerns because of pressure from veterans groups and Congress to deliver effective PTSD therapies.
Dr. Shannon also thinks that the FDA will consider MDMA because of the dire need for innovation in mental health treatment. He believes the FDA will likely impose safety restrictions, like a limited rollout, enhanced data collection, and a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program. Still, he thinks the organization will ultimately say yes.
The FDA decision whether to approve or deny MDMA therapy is expected to be announced by Aug. 11.
“We’re in a paradigm shift from either a psychotherapy or a pharmacology model, which have grave limitations, into a new model that combines them both,” Dr. Shannon said.
I’d like to agree, but I suspect the FDA is filled with well-meaning experts who fear unleashing the unknown.
In the current psychedelic resurgence, traditional medical paradigms are being called into question, and many are asking whether the profit-driven medicine model is really the best way to help people heal.
Forward-thinking, conscious psychedelic leaders and organizations are answering, and introducing new models of doing business. Moving beyond worthwhile concerns of sustainability, regenerative business goes a step further, shifting the focus from simply reducing negative effects to creating business models that actively replenish and regenerate.
This holistic, systems-based approach seems to be a natural fit for the field of psychedelics, a sector already deeply connected with more integrated views of the world.
This article explores the principles of regenerative business, its application in psychedelics, and the frameworks guiding those hoping to make a truly sustainable impact.
What is Regenerative Business?
Regenerative business models go beyond traditional efforts at sustainability. Instead of just mitigating negative impacts business can have on people and the planet, regenerative models aim to restore and enhance the systems and communities they interact with.
Regenerative economics involves resource circulation that restores and strengthens economic, social, and natural systems. Imagine natural ecosystems, like forests or mycelium networks, that thrive through nutrient and information exchange. They share and re-circulate resources, creating dynamically positive feedback loops that allow all parties to excel.
This type of collaborative system of doing business stands in stark contrast to an extractive model, which extracts resources, often at the expense of overall the well-being of the community or environment. Extractive economic models have led to an unsustainable disequilibrium, the results of which can be found in rising financial inequality, climate change, and ecosystem degradation. Personal well-being also suffers, with increased rates of mental health issues correlating with these economic and systemic imbalances.
Regenerative patterns aim to offer an antidote by promoting balance. In a regenerative economic system, interconnected webs of people and organizations support local feedback loops and other important exchanges like community capital circulation. This approach is being embraced in sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and energy, where supply chain practices play a crucial role in environmental stewardship and sustainability.
“Regenerative economics is about creating businesses that are foundationally centered on systems that restore, renew, and revitalize the people and the environment. Every aspect of the business from production and operations through company culture, monetization, and community engagement will have thoughtful holistic strategies that rejuvenate rather than deplete,” explains AnnaRae Grabstein, business strategist in emerging spaces. “This means not just minimizing harm but actively contributing to the betterment of all stakeholders. It’s about long-term thinking and innovative approaches that challenge the status quo.”
Regenerative Business and Psychedelics
A regenerative approach is particularly relevant to psychedelics and the future of psychedelic therapy and support. The traditional pharmaceutical approach to mental health, which focuses on biological symptoms with little regard for psychosocial factors, has not adequately addressed the mental health crisis. This model is also often based on a “chronic” treatment system where patients might be expected to take daily medication for longer terms or for the rest of their lives. Yet despite high sales of antidepressants and other SSRIs, rates of mental health problems have only increased.
“Using regenerative philosophy in the creation of psychedelic medicine businesses presents an opportunity to think beyond profit creation and integrate a strategy for generating positive impact,” says Grabstein, who will teach Growing Your Psychedelic Leadership and Business in the upcoming Vital 12-month program. “While businesses need to make money to exist and thrive, regenerative business principles unlock the potential to drive revenue through impactful and ethical practices. By prioritizing sustainability, social equity, and holistic well-being, regenerative business models can be a part of building a psychedelic wellness industry that benefits not only the bottom line but also the communities, ecosystems, and individuals it serves.”
A regenerative approach to psychedelics aims to create well-being by treating mind, body, and spirit holistically. Psychedelic experiences foster connection, helping individuals reconnect with themselves, their communities, and the natural world. This is achieved through group therapy, communal activities, and integration practices that leverage the openness fostered by psychedelics.
“Much of the mental distress that psychedelics may alleviate traces to the extractive pattern of our existing economic system – a pattern in which resources are extracted to benefit a single group – at the expense of overall well-being. It would be counterproductive to deliver psychedelic experiences using practices that embody the same extractive patterning making people unwell in the first place. A regenerative approach to delivering such experiences flips the pharmaceutical-centered approach on its head: rather than focusing on symptom management in an unwell patient, it aims to create well-being.”
Implementing Regenerative Practices in Psychedelics
Trying to operate in this more traditionally capitalist world can make transitioning to a regenerative business model seem daunting. But with the right frameworks and a commitment to systemic change, psychedelic companies can successfully move their work in a more regenerative direction.
Articulate Your Vision for Systemic Change: Clearly understand and communicate your purpose, impact, and influence. Define how you can reshape economies and contribute positively to the environment and society.
Map Systems and Identify Leverage Points: Analyze your internal systems, operations, value chain, and the broader market. Identify areas where you can strategically allocate resources to restore social and natural systems.
Set a Regenerative Strategy: Define how you will deliver value through regenerative outcomes. Identify key areas of impact and plan how to deliver the greatest stakeholder value.
Review Business Models: Assess your products and services. Explore how you can deliver value through regenerative practices, such as shifting models that focus on stakeholder value rather than profit or quantity of goods sold.
Define and Deliver Value: Recognize that regenerative approaches can drive financial value creation. Develop more holistic methods to understand value creation across your entire enterprise ecosystem (rather than a narrow view of short-term profit seeking).
Remaining in outdated models in an industry like psychedelics carries risks. For the psychedelic medicine space, which is closely tied to natural resources and community well-being, these risks are particularly significant. Inadequate adoption of regenerative principles can harm ecosystems, undermine the social fabric of communities, and damage the industry or company’s reputation, ultimately affecting long-term viability and growth.
While it may be tempting, and sometimes necessary, to focus on the immediate bottom line, a broader view of success can help long term viability.
Foster a Regenerative Culture: Cultivate a culture that prioritizes regeneration through action-oriented leadership and stakeholder engagement. This involves educating employees, partners, and consumers about the benefits of regenerative practices.
Pilot Projects: Start with pilot projects to test regenerative models. This approach allows companies to manage risks and evaluate opportunities before scaling up.
Collaborate and Share Knowledge: Engage in peer-to-peer and community mentorship to share insights, challenges, and successes. Collaboration can accelerate the adoption of regenerative practices across the industry.
Grabstein believes that implementing these models is a natural fit for psychedelics.
“The healing potential of psychedelics aligns naturally with the principles of regeneration – restoring mental, emotional and physical health to people, environments and communities. By integrating regenerative practices (like regenerative agriculture, circular economy principles and social equity), the companies and organizations who employ these methodologies can work towards the sustainable cultivation of natural psychedelic sources, ethical treatment of indigenous knowledge holders, and equitable access to therapies. This holistic approach can help build a resilient and responsible psychedelic medicine industry.”
The integration of regenerative business principles in the psychedelic industry offers a potentially transformative path forward. By adopting holistic, systems-based approaches, psychedelic companies can ensure sustainable sourcing, promote social equity, and build resilient economies. This commitment to regenerative practices has the potential to not only enhance therapeutic outcomes but also contribute to broader environmental and social well-being, paving the way for a truly sustainable future in psychedelics.
Are you a psychedelic professional interested in building an ethical business or practice that gives more than it takes? Consider joining our September cohort of Vital, where students can choose to specialize in Regenerative Business and Leadership (the first-ever offering of its kind).
Although the late psychologist and mystic Carl Jung died in the 1960s, his ‘inner self’ legacy is enjoying an organic revival, synchronizing with the resurgence of psychedelics.
Jung’s work provides a reliable road map for a psychedelic trip through the unconscious, and contemporary psychedelic explorers are hungry to learn more about his profound teachings.
Why Jung Appeals to a Broad Psychedelic Audience
Jung’s enduring transpersonal principles can help us interpret and understand complex non-ordinary experiences, whether they’re brought on by psychedelic compounds or other endogenous methods.
Thus, his insights resonate with a broad audience: licensed therapists, reiki practitioners, guides, yogis, integration coaches, breath workers, and others.
“We’re in need of tools that help us to articulate what’s going on at that level of depth,” says Jungian analyst-in-training and clinical psychology doctoral student MacKenzie Amara. “…we don’t have [many tools] to articulate what’s happening when we get into the messy place of extreme emotional catharsis and symbolic representation through the form of visions and communication with ancestors who have been long dead.”
Understanding Archetypes on Jung’s Terms
In order to comprehend Jung’s psychospiritual philosophies, it’s crucial to first understand some basic Jungian concepts and terms. Jung believed that the psyche (mind, body, soul) is composed of three parts: the ego (or personal conscious), the personal unconscious (unique, containing suppressed memories), and the collective unconscious.
The collective unconscious is a domain of primordial images and symbols that evoke meaning and connection across races, cultures, and nationalities. According to Jung, these symbols contain ‘ancestral memory’, which is inherited. Our ancestral roots and dreams provide insights into the collective unconscious, which shapes our perceptions, knowledge, and experiences.
Within this realm, four main archetypes reflect our beliefs, values, motivations, and morals. The four main Jungian archetypes are:
The Self: The Self emerges when the ego integrates with both the conscious and unconscious aspects of our minds. It represents the culmination of an individual’s spiritual journey, known as individuation. Through individuation, each person realizes their unique, cosmic identity.
The Persona: The Persona refers to the various social masks we wear. We present different aspects of ourselves depending on the social context, such as at work, with family, or with friends. The development of the persona is influenced by upbringing, culture, and environment.
The Shadow: The Shadow contains the parts of our personality that we repress, discard, and hide. These can include traits we are unaware of or do not appreciate. While prejudices and biases originate from the shadow, it is not entirely negative; it also holds potential strengths and hidden talents.
The Anima or the Animus: These archetypes represent the ideal feminine (anima) and masculine (animus) aspects within us. The animus embodies masculinity in a woman’s psyche, while the anima embodies femininity in a man’s psyche. Society often discourages the expression of these opposite-gender traits. Integrating the anima or animus is a crucial step in the process of individuation.
Due to intense engagement with archetypes during psychedelic experiences, individuals risk having their personal worldviews disassembled in the process.
“Jungian theory lends itself to people that have had spiritual, transgressive, or transpersonal experiences more than those that are kind of stuck in a rational materialistic worldview,” Amara explains.
These transpersonal experiences make the Self the focal point of the journey of individuation.
Carl Jung’s Inner Self Explained
The Self is central to Jung’s worldview, merging consciousness and unconsciousness to represent the whole psyche. We are born with a sense of unity, but as we grow and focus on the outer world—school, work, relationships—we form an ego and lose this unity, neglecting our inner world.
Jung identified two life stages: the outer world and the inner world. As adults, we often experience tension between our conscious and unconscious minds, leading to a midlife crisis. This signals the need to nurture our inner life.
Life’s challenges can bring a “dark night of the soul,” where societal values fail us. This prompts a quest to reconnect with our soul, though many avoid this confrontation. Embracing our suffering can lead to psychic growth, uniting our conscious and unconscious realms.
Through this process, known as individuation, we integrate the ignored parts of our unconscious, regaining wholeness and inner harmony.
Carl Jung’s Process of Individuation
As we turn inward, we encounter individuation, a central theme in Jung’s work. Individuation integrates our unconscious with the conscious, restoring the wholeness of the Self. This process, akin to self-actualization, involves breaking free from societal and cultural norms to become a unique individual. Successful individuation provides deep-rooted stability, like an ancient oak tree, supporting us through life’s storms.
Individuation heals the split between the conscious and unconscious, allowing our true Self to emerge. This journey creates turbulence as we realize our conventional world and unconscious world often conflict. The conventional world shapes our beliefs and behaviors, creating a structured reality. In contrast, the unconscious is chaotic and tumultuous, divided into the personal and collective unconscious. The personal unconscious contains everything outside our conscious awareness.
From birth, we operate largely on autopilot, influenced by external conditioning. This conditioning shapes our ego and self-perception, leading to a split and psychic imbalance. Psychedelics can help repair this split, aligning our conscious and unconscious minds.
Jung, Psychedelics, and “Ego Death”
Carl Jung coined an often used term in psychedelic vernacular: ego death. Ego death refers to a compromised sense of self, and it’s a state that’s coveted by many psychonauts. While some consider it an end goal of psychedelic work, it’s really the first step towards a return to wholeness. So, why is this idea prevalent in the psychedelic community?
“Psychedelics are what we call psycho-pumps for individuation. Meaning psychedelics are connectors to personal and collective unconscious; what gives you more of the unconscious material to then work with,” Dr. Ido Cohen explains.
This idea results in the common sentiment that psychedelics are “ten years of therapy in one day.”
While Cohen doesn’t think it’s necessarily accurate, he believes people are trying to say, “Wow, psychedelics can really open up the barrier to the personal and collective unconscious which then a flood of information comes in.”
This shedding of a one-sided self-identity holds true in above ground and underground psychedelic settings, as people jump-start their individuation. Insights can follow that may lead a person to explore what has been relegated to the basement of their psyche, or the “shadow.” When we learn to dance with the shadow, we empathize and relate with all of mankind on a profound level, Cohen says.
Learning to Dance with the Shadow
As a midlife crisis arises, or we enter a dark night of the soul, and the process of individuation begins and we come face to face with our shadow. This daunting task is referred to as doing “shadow work,” (another Jungian term gaining popularity in licensed and underground settings alike).
At first glance, we may see our shadow and assume it is evil or an enemy. But our shadow is part of us, and can’t be abandoned or avoided. As we familiarize ourselves with the shadow, we learn that it is not to be feared, as it is only dark or hostile when it is ignored or misunderstood. Thus, it’s critical to understand what the shadow really is.
What is the Shadow?
The shadow encompasses all the psychic elements we reject and hope to discard by casting them into the depths. It includes the traits we’ve ignored, disowned, or removed from ourselves, forming our personality in the process. The shadow is the unknown dark side of our personality, representing everything we desire not to be.
The shadow includes negative and primitive human emotions and impulses: selfishness, rage, greed, pride, and lust. Anything we reject in ourselves as evil, intolerable, or less than ideal forms the shadow. It’s a repository of both negative and positive qualities we no longer claim. Within this mix, we find the shadow’s hidden treasures.
Cohen notes, “There is also the golden shadow, which includes beautiful aspects we repressed due to our upbringing or environment.”
This could mean rediscovering playfulness or sexuality. Or it could reveal latent talents, like a lawyer discovering a talent for writing or an athlete becoming a chef. It often emerges in psychedelic settings, inspiring life changes like new careers, divorces, or relocations. However, it’s crucial to provide quality integration and a solid container to help individuals make sound decisions and avoid regret.
The shadow compensates for what we lack. For instance, if a person is aggressive, the shadow reflects empathy and tenderness. If they’re shy, it reflects confidence and assertiveness. Honoring and accepting the shadow is an intense spiritual exercise, revealing our potential and the ideal self we strive to become.
Carl Jung’s Psychedelic Guidance is Here to Stay
For the Western mind, unaccustomed to Indigenous worldviews that embrace plant spirits and entities, Jung’s concept of the inner self offers all psychedelic practitioners an invaluable tool to navigate the mind-manifesting unknown. Think of Carl Jung as a trustworthy psychic sherpa: he guides us through the peaks and valleys of the timeless and boundless realms of human consciousness (and unconsciousness), helping us reconnect with our soul.
Do you feel called to learn more about Jung’s teachings? Consider joining us for our fourth cohort of Vital, where students can specialize in Depth and Jungian Perspectives. Applications are open now with limited seats available.
Asking for help is an inherently vulnerable thing. But when it comes to becoming a better psychedelic facilitator or guide, it’s crucial. Enter: psychedelic mentorship.
When people seek help from a psychedelic professional, experience matters. One may be dealing with addiction, depression, or trauma. Or perhaps something a bit lighter: a reset, a shift of perspective. Whatever the reason, individuals place their trust not only in the substance, but in the practitioners who help guide the way.
The vulnerability and trust between individuals and their psychedelic support providers highlight the critical importance of experience. This is why professional relationships, such as mentorships, are essential. A skilled mentor can equip facilitators with the expertise to handle the most challenging circumstances, distinguishing them from those who cannot provide the same level of support.
How Mentorship Can Help Psychedelic Professionals
The resurgence of interest in psychedelic medicine has ushered in a new era of therapeutic possibilities, yet despite the exciting prospects of increased access and expanded treatment options, considerations like ethics and client safety must remain paramount. Mentorship can provide the responsible guidance needed to navigate these crucial therapeutic aspects, ensuring that the rapid expansion of psychedelic therapy does not compromise the quality of care.
Psychedelic mentorship offers numerous benefits, both for the mentees and the broader professional psychedelic community. It provides future practitioners, therapists, guides, and integration specialists with critical knowledge, guidance, and support, helping them build confidence and competence in their practice. Experienced mentors share insights gleaned from years of helping others, including best practices, ethical considerations, and the subtleties of client care that are not always covered in formal training programs.
Moreover, mentorship fosters a culture of continuous learning and professional development. It encourages mentees to stay updated on the latest research and developments in psychedelics, promoting an evidence-based approach to supporting clients. This dynamic exchange of knowledge helps advance the field, ensuring that therapeutic practices evolve and stay connected with new scientific discoveries and industry norms.
What Can Future Psychedelic Professionals Learn From Mentorship?
Through mentorship, novice professionals and healers gain hands-on experience under the guidance of seasoned practitioners. This practical exposure is invaluable, as it allows mentees to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings, honing their skills in client interaction, session management, and therapeutic intervention.
Mentors also provide future psychedelic professionals with feedback and constructive criticism, helping them identify areas for improvement and develop their therapeutic style. This personalized guidance ensures that new psychedelic practitioners are well-equipped to handle the varied challenges that will inevitably arise during their practice.
For insight on mentorship in the psychedelic medicine space, we spoke with Kylea Taylor, therapist and creator of Inner Ethics program. As an ethics instructor for the Vital Professional Certificate Training in Integrative Psychedelic Studies, she observes first-hand how valuable mentorship is for psychedelic professionals who are training to build their careers and work with clients.
“I think the most important training is experiential. Supervised experience of having many extra-ordinary states of consciousness oneself and sitting for others who are in extra-ordinary states of consciousness,” Taylor said.
“Along with those experiences, it is very important to be in experiential study communities with other peers who share their experiences while you listen and who listen to yours. It is important then to have trainers and trained facilitators who can answer your questions and make comments about what happened in a group session. They can answer the questions of your peers, from which you learn as well.”
The Unique Situation of Psychedelic Therapy
Psychedelic therapy and support occupies a unique and complex niche within the broader field of mental health treatment. There’s a delicate mix of hands-on client care, navigating the legal status of psychedelics, and the specific ethical and professional considerations intrinsic to this type of therapy.
The Vulnerability of Clients
Clients engaging in psychedelic therapy or support often enter highly vulnerable states. The substances used, such as MDMA, psilocybin, and LSD, can induce intense emotional and psychological experiences. These experiences can unearth deep-seated traumas, evoke powerful emotions, and alter perceptions of reality. This heightened vulnerability requires practitioners to be exceptionally skilled in managing emotional crises and providing a safe, supportive environment.
Mentorship plays a critical role in preparing therapists to handle these situations with the utmost sensitivity and care, ensuring that clients feel secure and supported throughout their journey. Mentors can share their experience, help keep mentees focused, and guide them through helping clients navigate challenging experiences.
In her training sessions with burgeoning psychedelic facilitators, Taylor places an emphasis on the importance of ethical considerations and the utmost care for clients.
“[Facilitators have] an up-power position that has a greater power differential than the one between a therapist and a client in talk therapy. The psychedelic medicine amplifies vulnerability, suggestibility, and sensitivity. It softens the client’s defenses. This makes it incumbent on the practitioner, what I call the person who is in the ‘Responsible Party’ role, to have a regular source of oversight for their work—a peer consultation group, a supervisor, or a mentor—where we can be vulnerable ourselves and talk and learn from our challenges to provide impeccable care to clients.”
The Legal Status of Psychedelics
The legal status of psychedelics adds another layer of complexity to psychedelic facilitation. While there is a growing movement towards the decriminalization of psychedelics, they remain illegal in many parts of the world. Even in jurisdictions where psychedelic therapy is permitted under specific conditions, like clinical trials or compassionate use programs, legal restrictions and regulatory requirements can be stringent. Mentors help practitioners navigate this complex legal landscape, ensuring they remain compliant with all relevant laws and regulations. This guidance is essential for protecting both the facilitator and the client, as legal missteps can have severe consequences.
Ethical Considerations & Ensuring Safe Spaces for Clients
The unique and sometimes intense realities of psychedelic therapy demand adherence to rigorous ethical standards. The altered states of consciousness induced by psychedelics can blur boundaries and heighten emotional and psychological sensitivity. Practitioners must be adept at maintaining professional boundaries, managing therapeutic dynamics like transference, and ensuring informed consent. Mentors can help trainees understand and uphold these ethical standards, offering guidance from their lived professional experiences, helping future practitioners prepare for the unique challenges that could arise in psychedelic sessions.
“Practitioners can, without realizing it sometimes, come to believe that the healing and transformation of their clients is their own doing,” says Taylor. “They can misuse a client’s transference and be in denial about their own countertransference. They can exploit a client’s vulnerability or suggestibility sexually, emotionally, financially, medically, or spiritually and rationalize their reasons for doing so. They can ignore their own semi-conscious and unconscious motivations. If they have no peer consultation group or mentor, they may have no one to remind them about their client’s best interests.”
Traditional vs. Peer-to-Peer and Community Mentorship
Mentorship in psychedelics can take various forms, each with its unique benefits. Traditional mentorship involves a one-on-one relationship between an experienced mentor and a less experienced mentee. This approach allows for deep, personalized guidance and the development of a strong, supportive relationship.
In contrast, peer-to-peer and community mentorship involve more collaborative and collective forms of support. Peer-to-peer mentorship connects individuals at similar stages in their careers, enabling them to share experiences, challenges, and solutions on an equal footing. Community mentorship, on the other hand, involves larger networks of practitioners who provide mutual support, share resources, and collectively advance the field.
These forms of mentorship can complement traditional mentorship, providing a well-rounded support system for professionals at all stages of their careers. Taylor sees benefits in a well-rounded approach.
“I think having both forms of oversight is ideal. Traditional mentorship is usually one-on-one or in small groups. One can benefit from a mentor’s greater expertise. A one-on-one supervisory session can usually provide more security of confidentiality about a client situation,” Taylor said. “Peer consultation groups can provide more points of view, a breadth of resources and greater reach in networking. Our InnerEthics Peer Consultation Group is structured to protect vulnerability as practitioners rotate in roles to help each other do self-inquiry and relational reflection. Together they do mutual consciousness development to help them do their consequential work. Members of these groups also benefit from two things that are hard to come by in modern culture: a feeling of belonging and greater self-compassion.”
Considering the unique dynamics of psychedelic therapy, and how the future rollout will be full of new participants and novel therapeutic models, mentorship is quickly becoming a cornerstone of professional development. This supportive mode of training will help equip professionals with the knowledge, skills, and ethical grounding necessary to ensure they’re well-prepared to meet the challenges and opportunities of this new era of mental health.
Are you working toward becoming a psychedelic professional, and looking for mentors to guide you? Consider Vital, where students gain access to one-on-one mentorship opportunities with experienced facilitators working in the field. Applications are open now with limited seats available.
Microdosing. By now the practice has fully emerged from the underground and into the mainstream. No longer the domain of self-healing psychonauts and efficiency-chasing CEOs, the benefits of microdosing can be found in major magazines and clinical trials with Ivy-league universities.
The concept is relatively simple: taking very small, sub-perceptual doses of psychedelics (generally one-tenth to one-twentieth of a recreational or therapeutic dose). This practice has been reported to provide some of the benefits of psychedelic substances without strong sensory effects and, sometimes, help with the difficult work involved in full psychedelic-assisted therapy sessions.
As we move towards possible approval of psychedelic medicines by the FDA, and with decriminalization measures making progress in jurisdictions across the globe, how will microdosing fit into this future of psychedelic-assisted therapy? What benefits does it provide to therapists, practitioners, and the clients they serve?
Microdosing as a Tool For Practitioners and Clients
Despite an overwhelming number of positive personal stories and self-reported research, the hard science is still out as to the level of tangible benefits patients might gain from microdosing psychedelics. However, this combination of enthusiastic anecdotal reports and (slowly) mounting clinical research makes microdosing an intriguing tool for people looking to better their mental health and the practitioners who help them do it.
We spoke with Kayse Gehret, microdosing expert and founder of Microdosing for Healing, for her perspective on how microdosing can improve therapeutic results for both patients and practitioners.
Microdosing is the ideal way to introduce most individuals to psychedelic practice and therapy.
“Its relative subtlety is an advantage as it provides people a gentler introductory experience and begins to allow some challenging or unfamiliar emotions to surface incrementally versus all at once,” Gehret said. “My colleagues and I are seeing an increasing number of clients coming to us after returning from a high dose ceremonial retreat feeling destabilized. While psychedelics can bring us big truths, we must also recognize that much of the public is not appropriately prepared, resourced, or ready to receive these truths in a single weekend.”
Psychedelics primarily work by modulating the brain’s serotonin system, which plays a key role in mood regulation, cognition, and perception. They can also enhance neural plasticity and connectivity. These types of effects create states of mind that are fertile ground for mental health therapies. Openness, creativity, dissolution of the ego, the breaking of bad habits of mind — all are typical benefits of psychedelic therapy that may also be accessible through microdosing regimens.
According to Gehret, microdosing has a lighter touch, and is less of a jarring and intimidating experience. This allows patients to take part in psychedelic therapies with a gentler, more accessible introduction.
“By starting with microdosing, individuals can begin to heal and discover threads and shadow material leading up to and in preparation for their high dose journey,” Gehret explained. “In our microdosing community, I’ve witnessed repeatedly that when people begin with microdosing and work to deepen their relationship with the medicine over time, when they ultimately journey they tend to have much less fear, resistance and ‘challenging trip’ experience.”
“Professionally, I also believe microdosing is wonderfully supportive of the therapeutic bond between the client and their facilitator. By beginning with a microdosing protocol, a psychedelic guide can establish, deepen, and develop their bond with a client well in advance of the journey, which I believe can lead to much better outcomes and experiences for both client and guide.”
Therapeutic Benefits of Microdosing Psychedelics
While the efficacy of psychedelic medicine is becoming increasingly known to mental health professionals, it’s useful to look at some of the potential benefits of microdosing protocols and how practitioners may be able to incorporate them into their practices.
Depression and Anxiety: One of the most promising areas for microdosing psychedelics is in the treatment of depression and anxiety. Anecdotal reports and preliminary studies suggest that microdosing can lead to improvements in mood, reduced anxiety, and increased emotional resilience. For clients who have not responded well to traditional talk therapy or antidepressants, microdosing may offer an alternative or adjunctive treatment option. For recent clinical results, see the Phase 2 results from MindBio Therapeutics’ microdosing trial using LSD for depression.
Enhanced Creativity and Problem-Solving: Microdosing has been reported to enhance creativity, focus, and problem-solving abilities. These cognitive benefits can be particularly useful in therapeutic settings, where patients are often encouraged to engage in introspective and creative processes as part of their treatment. Enhanced cognitive flexibility may also help patients break out of rigid thought patterns that contribute to unhealthy states of mind.
Increased Mindfulness and Presence: Personal reports and self-reported research has shown increased mindfulness and a greater sense of presence in their daily lives. This heightened awareness can enhance the effectiveness of therapeutic practices such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and other mindfulness-based interventions.
Gehret has been guiding therapies and teaching Vital’s microdosing courses for several years, sharing her first-hand experience with burgeoning student practitioners. In addition to the therapeutic possibilities, microdosing protocols can help solve issues around access, as traditional psychedelic-assisted therapy can be a costly and lengthy endeavor, she says.
“Microdosing is a subtle and gentle way to explore a therapeutic relationship with psychedelics and test how your body, mind, and spirit respond. It’s also far more accessible and affordable than clinical psychedelic therapy treatments, which can run into multiple thousands of dollars for a single experience, is not covered by most insurers, and will leave out most of the under-insured population,” she told Psychedelics Today. “On the other hand, cultivating your own medicines and becoming part of a microdosing community will cost far less, plus provide you with the ongoing benefits of community, education and support.”
As psychedelic therapy continues to enter the mainstream, it seems that microdosing will become an important introductory tool for those looking for help but are perhaps not yet fully comfortable with the idea of psychedelics. From a logistical perspective, the shorter session time and lack of hallucinatory journey means that microdosing can provide a tool for practitioners that offers some of the benefits of psychedelic therapies but with fewer demands on resources (time and costs), which can create a more accessible experience for clients.
Microdosing group work and peer-to-peer models are also advantageous over traditional one-to-one therapy, as more people can be served, while eliminating the potential for practitioner burnout
“These models also empower people to step into their own healing, self-trust, and intuition, and support each other in the process. In our microdosing community, we have people who have been attending our gatherings since our inception – and many of them have gone on to become microdosing coaches, guides and community builders. They serve as models, mentors and inspiration for the participants just starting out.”
This psychedelic resurgence is in an exciting moment, one that offers the possibility to create new modes and models for mental health treatments. Yet as with any new frontier, it’s crucial to build solid foundations based on education and responsibility. Ensuring that tomorrow’s practitioners are receiving the proper training is vital to the health of the growing landscape. Mentors like Gehret are lending their expertise to help build these paradigms.
In the future, Gehret envisions practitioners offering a range of microdosing support: integration circles, one to one support, group programs, and weaving the practice into their existing healing modalities like bodywork, psychotherapy, end-of-life care, human design, hypnotherapy, and more.
“This new way of incorporating and blending complementary modalities is incredibly effective and also a breath of fresh air from the silos and gate-keeping we see within medical models of care where you need to get a referral for everything and the system is rigged for profit over the best interest of the patient,” she said. “It really is an exciting time to be in the healing professions and microdosing is an ideal practice and bridge for people to begin to think differently about their health and healing.”
Interested in learning more about how to become a professional specializing in microdosing? Enrollment for the September cohort of Vital is open, with limited seats available.
Following the multi-decade regulatory pursuit, legal MDMA-assisted therapy (MDMA-AT) seemed imminent to many people. In February 2024, the FDA accepted Lykos Therapeutics’ New Drug Application (NDA), and all markers indicated a likely approval.
However, on June 4, the Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee (PDAC) shattered optimism when nearly all members advised the FDA to reject Lykos’ application.
In a 9-2 and 10-1 vote, the committee asserted its belief that MDMA therapy, as it stands, is neither effective nor safe for Americans with PTSD.
So, what is MDMA’s FDA approval status following the hearing?
The outlook seems grim, given that the FDA aligns with the advisory panel 88% of the time. Still, Lykos (formerly MAPS Public Benefit Corporation) remains hopeful.
“We believe there is a path forward and are focused on collaborating with the FDA as they continue to review our NDA over the months,” said Lykos in an email interview.
A final decision on MDMA for PTSD is expected on or around August 11th.
The Backstory
Starry-eyed psychedelic proponents didn’t see the dissent coming. The FDA had just granted Lykos’ NDA priority review, and everything seemed to be going smoothly.
However, the contention became clear on March 26, when the Institute of Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) published draft evidence on MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD. In the report, ICER acknowledged MDMA’s potential to help people heal from trauma. However, it raised significant concerns about weaving this novel treatment into traditional medicine.
The TLDR of the report’s criticism was that Lykos’ clinical evidence did not sufficiently support MDMA therapy for PTSD. The report cited alleged data validity issues, potential biases from therapists and participants, and a reported incident of sexual misconduct. It also highlighted MDMA’s cardiovascular risks, unexamined adverse events, and lack of long-term data proving the therapy’s enduring effects.
A month later, five people submitted a citizen petition to the FDA commissioner requesting the organization convene an advisory committee meeting on MDMA-AT to discuss the application’s “shortcomings and risks.” The letter also called for an extended public comment period prioritizing concerned speakers, and a live webcast.
The letter’s primary claim against the NDA was that MAPS/Lykos allegedly “manipulated clinical trial data to hide adverse events from regulatory agencies, motivated in part by a belief that these agencies would not understand that these adverse events are a necessary part of their MDMA-AT.”
The FDA responded to the petition by granting the advisory committee meeting with an extended comment period. However, it denied the request to prioritize input from concerned stakeholders.
The Meeting
June 4th’s meeting was a nine-hour saga, inviting FDA members, public participants, Lykos representatives, and eleven PDAC panelists to debate the risks and benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy.
PDAC boasted various roles in the psychopharmacologic field, including consumer representatives, pharmacists, patient representatives, scholars, and physicians. It did not include experts from the field of psychedelic research. Nevertheless, by 5:30 p.m., the board confidently dismissed MDMA-AT’s ability to do more good than harm for PTSD.
Lykos told Psychedelics Today that they didn’t see the rejection coming.
“Going into the meeting, we knew this was a unique assignment for the panel to review a drug-plus therapy combination. We did, however, believe that the fact that studies showed MDMA-assisted therapy offers statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvement in PTSD symptoms and functional impairment compared to placebo across two phase 3 trials with evidence of durability over time would compel the panel to support approval.”
86.5% of patients in the MMDA-AT group clinically benefited from the treatment compared to 69% in the placebo group.
71.2% of the MDMA cohort no longer held a PTSD diagnosis, compared to 47.6% in the placebo group.
46.2% of MDMA patients achieved remission compared to 21.4% in the placebo cohort.
Despite the clinically impressive results, PDAC emphasized significant doubts about the data’s validity and MDMA-AT’s overall safety.
Functional Unblinding and Expectation Bias
Functional unblinding occurs when participants or researchers accurately predict the treatment they receive or administer. Expectation bias occurs when someone anticipates a particular result. Prior experience, previously held beliefs, and functional unblinding can cause such biases, potentially impacting patient experiences and reporting.
Dr. Paul Holtzheimer from the National Center for PTSD said, “Expectation bias can work in two ways. It can exaggerate the effect of the active treatment and blunt the effect of the placebo treatment.”
It’s true that 40% of the trial participants used MDMA in the past and may have assumed the drug worked based on prior positive experiences.
However, as Lykos points out in a recent statement, “The data indicates that prior illicit MDMA use had no impact on the results, as there was no meaningful difference in primary outcome measure or adverse events reported between the subgroup of Phase 3 participants who reported prior illicit MDMA use and the subgroup of participants who did not.”
Functional unblinding impacts, however, are far more debatable.
Renowned psychedelic drug researcher Matthew Johnson, PhD, explained Lykos’ unblinding problem in a recent X post.
Johnson said, “For those [in the study] thinking they got MDMA, the therapeutic effect was nearly identical between MDMA and placebo [groups]. Yikes.”
In other words, people who guessed they were on MDMA achieved similar therapeutic responses, whether or not they really took the drug.
Still, Johnson points out in The Illusion of Consensus podcast that functional unblinding is not a new issue for psychedelics, nor is it unique.
“There are a whole host of drugs that have been [FDA] approved. All of the sleep drugs… all of the anti-anxiety benzodiazepines, all the ADHD drugs… all of the opioid pain relievers. The practice of psychiatry is filled with psychoactive drugs that have very clear signatures… I want to know to what degree in FDA advisory panels this [functional unblinding issue] has come up… Because cutting through the blind is an issue for all these [compounds]… I don’t think psychedelics should be held to a higher standard than the normal process.”
Misconduct and Data Integrity
Potential misconduct during the MAPS / Lykos trials added to PDAC’s concerns about the integrity of the results.
Allegations included reports that principal investigators:
Discouraged patients with negative experiences, like suicidality, from participating in follow-up studies.
Influenced patients to report favorable outcomes.
Inconsistently recorded adverse events.
Purposely recruited patients who would respond well to MDMA therapy for PTSD.
PDAC also lamented the trials’ insufficient data on patients with severe trauma as well as an overall lack of diversity, citing low Black and Asian representation.
Dr. Melissa Barone, a psychologist from the Maryland Healthcare System, said, “There are so many problems with the data that each one alone might [be okay]… But when you pile them up on top of each other… I think there are still a lot of questions about how effective the treatment is and how durable it is.”
At least some of the mistrust centered on the perception that Lykos and MAPS founder Rick Doblin, PhD, are determined to push MDMA approval at any cost.
Lykos says, “Like all research sponsors, Lykos and its clinical sites are subject to regular FDA inspections. We have full confidence that the FDA will continue to assess the integrity of Lykos’ research through its inspection process.”
Durability of Effect
Lykos’ clinical trials show that MDMA-assisted therapy exhibited durable therapeutic effects for at least six months. However, PDAC questioned the claim for several reasons.
One was that patients utilized other integrative treatments in between MDMA therapy and the follow-up analysis, including:
Psychodynamic therapy
Eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR)
Other cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
Group psychotherapy
Prolonged exposure
Cognitive processing therapy
Holotropic breathwork
Interpersonal therapy
The committee expressed that these therapies introduced “confounding factors,” which made it challenging to isolate MDMA-AT’s specific impact.
Meeting chair, Dr. Rajesh Narendran, added more skepticism. He said, “I’m not convinced that this drug is effective in the short term… PTSD is a disorder where symptoms can fluctuate quite a bit. We all know that. And I feel like there should have been more repeated assessments over time to gauge where these people are heading.”
Psychological Intervention
Lykos’ unique psychotherapeutic approach was another confounding factor impacting the data, according to PDAC.
The FDA does not regulate psychotherapy, so this sticking point was beyond the meeting’s scope. However, several participants expressed distrust over what they perceived as an unstandardized and unproven modality.
It employs standard protocols like Exposure Therapy, Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), EMDR, and psychodynamic therapy. It also invites less conventional techniques, like Internal Family systems (IFS), Voice Dialogue, Hakomi, virtual reality, and Buddhist psychology.
Dr. Holtzheimer said, “I think the challenge here is that the psychotherapy in this case is not evidence-based yet.”
Dr. Barone added, “MDMA is not administered without the psychotherapy. And the psychotherapy is really vague. It is not well-determined. It seems like it was not standardized. And that makes it really hard to determine how effective it is…”
PDAC argued that the lack of standardization raises questions about the trials’ reproducibility and reliability. They also questioned the necessity of the therapy itself, wondering whether MDMA alone could elicit similar benefits.
Dr. Amanda Holley, a pharmacologist who previously worked at the FDA, explained this challenge in a recent Psychedelics Today Podcast.
“[The FDA] is having a hard time disentangling the contribution of therapy vs just MDMA. With this trial, they would’ve liked to see a factorial design that [tested] the therapy with the drug, an arm with the drug alone, and an arm with therapy alone. That would’ve given them a more holistic view of the data.”
Safety Concerns
Another data gap involved cardiovascular health risks, which panelists said were not fully assessed throughout the studies. They raised concerns that MDMA could cause heart attacks and strokes.
In The Illusion of Consensus podcast, Dr. Johnson explained that this argument was somewhat “absurd” due to MDMA’s known effects. Sure, it raises blood pressure and heart rate. But it’s a reasonable risk-benefit ratio. Johnson compared MDMA’s cardiovascular impact to Adderall, which doctors give to children every day.
“Even with a minor abnormality at the end of a session, it doesn’t mean it will lead to a clinical event like a stroke, which is extremely rare,” said Dr. Johnson.
The FDA said it should have required Lykos to take EKGs and blood samples after MDMA sessions. However, the agency admittedly approved Lykos’ study design without these measures.
The FDA’s admission did not shift the panelists’ perspective.
Sexual misconduct was another significant concern sparked by an incident in 2015.
A harrowing public comment on the matter came from Speaker 26, Sarah Grosh, who spoke as a proxy for Phase 2 participant Meaghan Buisson. In Buisson’s words, Grosh described the abuse that took place. Buisson’s descriptions of the assaults she suffered in session were recorded and are now publicly available.
Buisson also reported becoming suicidal during the trial and said that Lykos did not document this adverse event. She claimed MDMA therapy left her overwhelmingly vulnerable and led to further exploitation by her therapist, who she said trafficked her while still in the trial.
Grosh asserted that Lykos’ leadership did nothing to intervene after she filed the ethics complaint in 2018 and that they continue to deny any ethical violations.
Lykos responded in its statement, saying, “This was a terrible and harmful instance of malpractice that caused profound suffering to a participant. Lykos reported this violation to Health Canada, the FDA, and the relevant Institutional Review Board and banned the therapist pair associated with this case from all future work. Since then, we carefully developed and implemented new policies and practices aimed to prevent, detect, investigate, encourage reporting of, and thoroughly respond to potential instances of misconduct or unethical behavior.”
Prospects of FDA Approval
Amid the shadow of alleged misconduct, data misalignment, and safety concerns, PDAC voted an overwhelming no to MDMA treatment for PTSD. The FDA is not required to follow PDAC’s guidance. However, the overwhelming pushback casts serious doubt over whether 2024 will be Lykos’ year.
“It doesn’t look good at all. I imagine at some point MDMA will be approved for PTSD, but I wouldn’t put bets on it to be approved in August,” said Dr. Johnson.
Many people have read the statistic that the FDA aligns with advisory committees 88% of the time. However, a lesser-known fact is that in cases when the committee did not recommend approval, the FDA only agreed 67% of the time. This disparity leaves the door open for hope.
Another hopeful sign, according to Dr. Holley, is that the FDA prioritizes public health when making NDA decisions. The fact that current PTSD therapies are highly deficient and no new drugs have been approved in decades represents a significant healthcare failure.
Lykos maintains that MDMA-assisted therapy can meet the nation’s critical mental health needs, and it has not given up on approval.
“While we understand that the FDA considers advisory committee recommendations, most of the conversation at the meeting centered on known issues that have already been discussed and investigated. In addition, the panel was focused on the regulation of therapy outside the FDA’s purview.”
Lykos added that the organization is discussing a potential post-approval REMS (Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy) program with the FDA. REMS would seek to ensure patient safety and regulatory compliance through measures to monitor and manage risks.
“If FDA-approved, prescription MDMA-assisted therapy will be launched with careful consideration of its potential benefits and risks, following established medical guidelines, protocols, and quality standards,” said Lykos.
What’s Next if the FDA Approves MDMA-Assisted Therapy?
If the FDA approves Lykos’ application in August, the decision will spark a timeline that requires several bureaucratic steps before patients can access MDMA treatment for PTSD.
First, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) must reschedule MDMA from Schedule I within three months of approval.
After the federal rescheduling, states must also reschedule the drug. Most have processes for automatic alignment, while others have state-specific scheduling procedures.
“Our plan is to make MDMA-assisted therapy available, if approved, in 2025,” said Lykos, who clarified that they would initially roll out the program to a limited number of sites.
What’s Next if Lykos’ Application Fails?
Lykos declined to speculate on what they might do if the new drug application for MDMA-AT fails.
However, in similar circumstances, trial sponsors must thoroughly rectify the issues through additional studies, further data collection, or modifications to the drug’s formulation, labeling, or manufacturing process. Once finished, sponsors must resubmit a package with all the information proving the issuers were resolved. The FDA then re-evaluates the application to determine if it meets the safety and regulatory requirements.
The process can delay FDA approval by a median of 435 days, requiring companies to spend significantly more time and money to get to the finish line.
The Bottom Line
PDAC does not think the current data proves MDMA therapy is effective for PTSD, nor does it believe the potential harms outweigh the risks. Lykos asserts that the clinical trial results speak for themselves and that treatment could significantly improve countless lives. Now, 13 million Americans with PTSD await MDMA’s FDA approval status in August.
Imagine a world where psychedelic-assisted therapy helps alleviate the mental health inequities faced by LGBTQ+ communities. This breakthrough could be closer than we think.
In recent years, psychedelic-assisted therapy has re-emerged as a promising frontier in mental health treatment. With substances like psilocybin and MDMA showing efficacy in recent clinical trials in treating major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), respectively, the prospect of psychedelic medicine is becoming more distinct, though uncertainties clearly remain.
However, as this field progresses, it is crucial to ensure that the benefits of these innovative treatments are accessible to all, particularly to those in marginalized communities. This includes sexually and gender-diverse people (or LGBTQ+ communities), who remain underrepresented in clinical research despite facing disproportionately high, inequitable rates of mental health challenges.
What are the current mental health disparities among LGBTQ+ communities, the limitations of the current psychedelic research landscape, and how we may move forward to improve clinical science and promote health equity? And further, how could psychedelic-assisted therapy alleviate minority stress-related mental health challenges among LGBTQ+ communities?
LGBTQ+ Mental Health and Minority Stress
LGBTQ+ individuals, encompassing a diverse spectrum of sexual and gender identities, experience unique stressors related to their minority status, or, more specifically, minoritization and oppression. These stigma-related stressors include chronic and persistent experiences of identity-related discrimination, interpersonal and internalized stigma, and expectations of rejection, all of which contribute significantly to mental health disparities, including higher rates of depression and anxiety beginning in childhood and adolescence.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found in their Youth Risk Behavior Survey that over 20% of sexually diverse youth attempted suicide in 2021, compared to 6% of their heterosexual peers. Of note, the mental health climate varies among the sub-groups within the LGBTQ+ communities, with the CDC finding that over 30% of trans and gender-diverse youth attempted suicide in 2019 (compared to 7.3% of their cisgender peers). These alarming statistics underscore the urgent need for targeted mental health interventions for LGBTQ+ patient populations.
The minority stress theory, as initially developed by Ilan Meyer, provides a framework for understanding these disparities. This theory has been routinely supported by empirical data and posits that the chronic stress experienced by LGBTQ+ individuals due to societal stigma and discrimination – or minority stress – has profound negative effects on their mental health.
Meyer describes a ‘distal-proximal continuum,’ where distal minority stressors include stressors independent of individual psychological processes, like identity-related violence or family and peer rejection, while proximal minority stressors include stressors dependent on individual appraisals, such as internalized homo- and transphobia, or chronic threat vigilance.
Given these mental health considerations unique to LGBTQ+ communities, there is a pressing demand to investigate and potentially tailor psychedelic-assisted therapy within the contexts of these specific minority stressors to improve LGBTQ+ mental health outcomes.
Flaws in Current Psychedelic Research for LGBTQ+ Communities
Current clinical trials on psychedelic-assisted therapy have been criticized for their lack of diversity, particularly the underrepresentation of racially minoritized communities and LGBTQ+ communities. Indeed, the vast majority of recent clinical trials have not collected data on the trial participants’ sexual orientation and gender identity, leaving outstanding treatment questions for the LGBTQ+ communities.
The inclusion of LGBTQ+ participants in these clinical trials is not just a matter of equity but also scientific rigor and generalizability, as detailed by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Additionally, understanding how psychedelic-assisted therapy interacts with the unique minority stressors faced by LGBTQ+ individuals may lead to more effective and inclusive treatment protocols.
A recent perspective published in Nature Mental Health by our team emphasizes the necessity of inclusive research, noting that systematic collection of sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) data is crucial for assessing the impact, if any, of psychedelic-assisted therapy on minority stress processes.
Additionally, the article describes how the integration of minority stress theory with existing models of psychedelic action, such as the relaxed beliefs under psychedelics (REBUS) model, offers a promising avenue for future research. The REBUS model theorizes that psychedelics are therapeutic as they make entrenched, maladaptive cognitive and behavioral patterns more malleable, ripe for establishing newer patterns of behavior and facilitating examination of old patterns.
For LGBTQ+ individuals, whose mental health may be compromised by deeply ingrained negative beliefs and expectations due to chronic minority stress, such as internalized homo- and transphobia, this psychological flexibility may be particularly therapeutic. In theory, by alleviating the rigid, maladaptive cognitive and behavioral patterns associated with minority stress, psychedelic-assisted therapy may facilitate profound psychological healing and resilience among LGBTQ+ communities. However, until research becomes more equitable, much will remain unknown for the LGBTQ+ communities–and these theories will remain hypotheses.
How LGBTQ+ Psychedelic Research Can Improve
To advance this research, several steps are essential.
First, there must be focused recruitment efforts, with study and site-specific strategies, to ensure the inclusion of diverse sexual and gender identities in psychedelic clinical trials.
Second, researchers need to systematically collect and analyze SOGI data to understand specific impacts of psychedelic-assisted therapy on sexually and gender-diverse populations, who make up over 20% of Generation Z, according to a recent Gallup Poll.
Third, clinical trials should incorporate outcomes designed to assess minority stress processes explicitly.
And finally, developing and testing SGM-affirmative adaptations of psychedelic-assisted therapy protocols will be crucial in making these therapies potentially more effective and accessible to LGBTQ+ individuals. Importantly, such efforts must be complemented by comprehensive initiatives to establish an inclusive, affirming, and empowering environment for LGBTQ+ trial participants across each phase of the clinical trial.
These efforts, however, must be mentioned in conjunction with addressing the historical distrust between the LGBTQ+ communities and the medical establishment. LGBTQ+ individuals have experienced discrimination and stigmatization in health care settings and research, which can deter them from seeking care or participating in clinical trials.
Rebuilding trust requires the inclusion of LGBTQ+ researchers, clinicians, and community members in the design and implementation of psychedelic-assisted therapy clinical trials, with explicit acknowledgment and redress of this harmful past. This approach better ensures that future research is conducted in a culturally competent, trauma-informed manner, fostering a safer and more welcoming environment for LGBTQ+ trial participants.
Moving Forward with LGBTQ+ Inclusivity
The potential for psychedelic-assisted therapy to address the mental health disparities faced by LGBTQ+ communities deserves our attention. Realizing the potential of psychedelic-assisted therapy requires a concerted effort to include these populations in inclusive, affirmative research and to investigate treatments tailored to their unique health needs.
As the field of psychedelic research moves forward, it must do so with a commitment to inclusivity and equity, ensuring that the benefits of these groundbreaking therapies are available to all who need them. By expanding the scope of psychedelic clinical trials to include LGBTQ+ populations, while exploring LGBTQ-affirmative treatment models, we can move towards a more inclusive, effective, and compassionate approach to psychedelic research and mental health care. It is also imperative to rectify the historical underrepresentation and to advance mental health equity in meaningful ways.
As we continue to explore the therapeutic potential of psychedelics, let us do so with a vision of health care that embraces and uplifts every individual, importantly recognizing sexual and gender diversity. In doing so, we will not only enhance the validity and applicability of research findings but also ensure that the transformative potential of psychedelic-assisted therapy reaches those who need it most.
The journey towards mental health equity is long, but with deliberate and inclusive efforts, we can make significant strides in creating a world where every individual, regardless of their sexual or gender identity, can access and benefit from cutting-edge mental health treatments.
Disclaimer: The content of this article does not constitute medical advice. At the time of this writing, psychedelics remain largely illegal in the United States. We urge parents to consult with doctors and legal experts before considering psychedelic therapy for their children.
*All names and identifying features have been changed to protect the privacy of the youths featured in this article.
Mark* was 16 when he dreamt of ending his life. Jessica* was just 15 when she tried. Ketamine therapy saved them both, their clinicians say.
Mia* faced an eating disorder at 16. Her mom’s decision to book her a psilocybin retreat in Mexico led Mia to eat normally again that year.
19-year-old Justin* lived with phobias, anxieties, and bouts of depression. An underground mushroom journey and integration coaching enabled him to feel acceptance and autonomy for the first time.
Mia, Justin, Mark, and Jessica’s teen brains hadn’t fully formed when they ingested these psychedelics. And long-term research on adolescent entheogen use is limited. Yet, parents like Mark’s and Jessica’s are pursuing psychedelic healing for their depressed teens.
Sometimes, parents seek psychedelics as a ‘hail Mary pass’ after traditional antidepressants fail. Other times, psychedelics are the preferred first line of defense. Desperate to ease their children’s suffering, parents are pursuing solutions that break this taboo known to Western culture.
Here, we explore the parent-led phenomena of psychedelic therapy for teens, spanning ketamine clinics, psychedelic retreat centers, and underground circles.
Traditional Youth Psychedelic Use Around the World
Every psychedelic experience is different. Many are uncomfortable. However, the perception that only adults can effectively harness their healing power is steeped in narrow modern framing. The view does not hold up against centuries of use among Indigenous cultures that give young children plant medicine for spiritual and cultural initiation purposes.
The Fang tribe in Gabon, for instance, administers ibogaine to children between the ages of eight and ten. Brazil’s Santo Daime Church members give ayahuasca microdoses to babies, and the Huichol of Mexico give peyote to children starting at age six. The Huichol also use plant medicines prenatally and while breastfeeding to prevent miscarriage, support fetal growth, and enhance breast milk.
Family-based psychedelic rituals remain a common practice in Mexico, according to Andrew Tansil, co-owner of Mexican psilocybin retreat center Sayulita Wellness.
He recalls the time when Sayulita was a local center serving only Mexican nationals.
“People would bring their children as young as five or six, and they would do bufo, the Sonoran toad medicine, and have whole family experiences.”
Sayulita does not serve young children today. However, the center regularly accepts accompanied minors from all over the world starting at 16.
Why Parents Are Seeking Psychedelic Therapy for Teens
Parent-led inquiries on psychedelics have steadily increased over the past few years at Sayulita, with about one teen traveling there monthly. Sometimes, the center welcomes whole households, including parents and children, who ingest the medicine together. Other times, teens engage in private psychedelic sessions with Sayulita’s registered nurse practitioners. One parent must go with minors to these retreats.
Most teens who visit Sayulita have mental health concerns like depression or anxiety. However, eating disorders are the most common problem among young girls like Mia. Fortunately, many emerge from the psilocybin experience transformed.
“Mia was a superstar. She left the retreat eating all kinds of food and continued the trend back at home. Mia really moved forward and did so fearlessly. She got out of her way, and that was the whole intention of the experience,” Tansil said.
Eating disorders are not so common among Certified Psychedelic Coach Ehren Cruz’s young adult clients. However, many suffer from persistent unexplained anxieties, like Justin. Others face existential emergencies. All seek Cruz’s coaching services to prepare for and integrate psychedelic experiences into lasting change.
“The demographic of people reaching out is getting younger. Eighteen to 24-year-olds want to launch into the world with more purpose than the provisional life their parents built. They want alignment but don’t know how to achieve it, and the disconnect is causing a real crisis.”
Cruz finds that parents of these young adults see psychedelics as an bright pathway through the harrowing transition period.
“Parents have often gone through mental health struggles themselves. They have been in talk therapy and on SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) and have navigated the world from that muted sensory capacity. Now, they’re raising collegiate-age children with similar issues and want to handle healing differently.”
Cruz states that many parents seek psychedelics over SSRIs for teens to avoid clinical diagnoses. However, other parents find their way to psychedelics when all else has failed.
And if new research is any indication of the efficacy of psychedelics for teens, parents may no longer have to rely on anecdotes and their instincts to help them decide whether the compounds are the right choice for their child’s treatment.
The study aimed to investigate the long-term psychological effects and side effects associated with psychedelic use among adolescents between 16 and 24. Results indicted that not only did the teens have a greater sense of well-being after psychedelic use, they were less prone to depression, suicidal ideation, and delusional thinking.
How Ketamine Therapy is Helping Teens
D.C.-area ketamine clinic Avesta Ketamine and Wellness receives many calls from parents seeking psychedelic therapy for treatment-resistant teens. The center treats about one adolescent per quarter, like 15-year-old Jessica, who are severely depressed or nearing the brink of suicide.
Avesta co-founder Dr. Ladan Eshkevari welcomes this population because she believes ketamine saves young lives. She recognizes the potential risks but doesn’t see them as unique to young patients.
“Ketamine is a generally safe medication, but can be habit-forming in all patients,” said Eshkevari, adding, “the compound is rapid-acting with minimal side effects when done in a controlled setting, with providers trained to use it appropriately. Research shows ketamine induces synaptogenesis-growth of new synapses, impacting neuroplasticity.”
In other words, ketamine is well-tolerated at any age while helping form new connections between brain cells and reversing damage caused by stress and depression. This process typically improves mood and quickly reverses suicidal thoughts.
Fortunately for Jessica and Mark, many ketamine clinics accept teen patients. Some centers treat children as young as six.
Mark’s mom, Dana, recalls her son’s history of depression, anxiety, attention deficit disorder, and panic attacks starting at 14. At 16, he began expressing suicidal intentions.
At 18, Mark had a severe dystonic reaction to his antipsychotic medication, Abilify, involving intense involuntary muscle spasms. He refused to continue the medication afterward, so Dana searched tirelessly for alternatives.
“I second-guessed myself and worried that Mark would somehow get addicted… but in the end, it was his decision,” said Dana.
After Mark’s physician and psychiatrist agreed, Dana brought her son to Priority You ketamine clinic in Clearwater, Florida.
“By the sixth infusion, Mark felt different and no longer had suicidal ideation. He felt hopeful and creative for the first time in years,” said Dana.
The ‘Rubber Band Effect,’ Close Monitoring, and Expert Support
Mark worked with a therapist for two months after the protocol, developing healthy life skills like nutritious eating, exercising, and engaging with nature. However, four months later, he had a setback after his best friend committed suicide.
Mark went back to the clinic for an infusion. However, instead of feeling better, the ketamine experience confronted him with deeply repressed guilt.
“He had a breakdown,” said Dana.
Like Mark, Justin faced mental health deterioration after his psychedelic experience. However, Justin’s distress appeared just weeks later, and for different reasons.
“We call it the ‘rubber band effect,’” said Cruz.
The rubber band effect refers to the period after the peak experience when the mood-boosting psychedelic glow wears off. Initially, the person feels empowered and capable of transformative change. However, weeks or months later, old fears, egoic patterns, and anxieties can resurface with a vengeance.
“As the mind returns to its normal state, it can perceive the psychedelic insights as threats and tries to reassert itself,” said Ehren.
Justin’s rubber band smacked him into a full-on spiritual emergency. He experienced suicidal thoughts, couldn’t sleep, and started taking stabilizing medications.
“In [recent] conversations with Justin, he said he wouldn’t trade the psychedelic experience. He found the true grace and the essential self he was looking for. But he’s still coming through it two or three months later. The situation was incredibly disruptive,” said Cruz.
Justin and Mark’s psychedelic therapy challenges are common amongst people of all ages. However, young people are particularly vulnerable because they lack engrained self-regulation skills. The shaky emotional defenses teens have mean they need attentive, professional support before, during, and long after breakthrough psychedelic sessions to process fears, contend with disruptive insights, and avoid re-traumatization.
“It’s a big responsibility, and you must ensure young people have a support structure, a network, and other channels to hold it down,” said Cruz.
Ehkevari agrees.
“At Avesta, we ensure adolescents have a lot of support from parents, therapists, psychiatrists, and pediatricians.”
“… differences in acute subjective effects, specifically the less positive role of ego-dissolution experiences for long-term changes in adolescents, as well as a higher prevalence of HPPD-related symptoms suggest that special considerations might be required when assessing psychedelic treatment design and risks,” the report cautions.
Therapeutic intervention helped Mark a great deal after his friend’s suicide. Talk therapy and two additional ketamine infusions allowed him to process and heal the repressed emotions that the first session revealed. Mark started college a month later and is pursuing a degree in game design.
He visits the clinic for booster ketamine doses every six months.
“I don’t think Mark would still be here now if it weren’t for ketamine,” said Dana. “Mark still experiences anxiety. However, he does not have to take medication for it because he’s learned to cope.”
Coping with life’s ups and downs while staying present for the ride is precisely the promise that psychedelics offer. Parents like Dana value that pledge and are helping their teens feel their way through pain rather than medicating their young minds and managing symptoms.
“Current medications have a 70% failure rate and come with a whole host of side effects, with a long uptake time. I think patients and their families are starting to think about treatments that may get to the brain’s ability to heal versus medications that are mainly for symptom management,” said Eshkeavari.
According to Tansil, starting these alternative treatments earlier in life could be crucial.
“Younger people have less conditioning. And so they have a higher chance of having positive, transformational psychedelic experiences. The young person’s mind is also more open. So, healing happens much quicker and more fluidly.”
“The number one comment I hear from people over 60 who come to Sayulita is, ‘I wish I would’ve done this so much earlier in life.”
During a crowded mid-pandemic Zoom seminar on microdosing for addiction treatment, a few attendees raised caution over the dangerously simplistic ways in which addiction was being presented. Within moments, a frenzy of animosity resounded.
“Why are you bringing your negativity here?” one participant asked.
“The presenters are doing great—why not recognize that?” another chimed in.
“If you don’t like microdosing, you can git out!” yet another declared.
I would have been surprised if I hadn’t witnessed other psychedelic conversations where “negativity” was not welcome and legitimate criticism was deemed “bad vibes.” What did surprise me was the group’s validation – even the facilitator joined in and scolded the critics. Then again, since such critiques threatened his microdosing livelihood, I suppose his attitude made sense.
I noticed a similar – albeit more concerning trend – arise in February 2021, when a video surfaced of former 5-MeO-DMT facilitator Dr. Martin Ball boastfully recounting the time he vomited on the face of a client incapacitated by the powerful toad venom. For each objection to Ball’s blatantly unethical behavior, a defense kicked back, spitefully ridiculing the judgmental “snowflakes” and their “low vibrations.”
I’m all for a fair trial. But some actions are not OK, and vomiting on the face of an incapacitated person in your care is one of them. Evidently, many psychonauts disagree.
What is this trend I’m pointing to, this negativity about negativity, this shaming of voices raising valid concerns? This is a trend I’m calling “psychedelic bypassing.”
Psychedelic Bypassing: The many ways the mind can excuse abuse, ignore the darker sides of ourselves, categorize the vast scale of emotions into little boxes of “good” and “bad,” and cast aside anything deemed “lesser than” — all in the pursuit of a more enlightened life.
A Primer on Spiritual Bypassing
To understand psychedelic bypassing, it’s important to first understand spiritual bypassing.
In 1984, meditation teacher and psychotherapist John Welwood coined the term “spiritual bypassing.” As laid out in Robert Augustus Masters’ book Spiritual Bypassing: When Spirituality Disconnects Us from What Really Matters, spiritual bypassing is “the use of spiritual practice and beliefs to avoid dealing with our painful feelings, unresolved wounds, and developmental needs.”
In other words, it is disguising patterns of avoidance with New Age lingo that liberates us from confronting difficult and painful realities. In short, Masters describes spiritual bypassing as “avoidance in holy drag” — a strategy “not only for avoiding pain but also for legitimizing such avoidance.”
But What Does This Have to Do With Psychedelics?
Don’t psychedelics force us to confront difficult and painful realities, no matter how fervently we resist? A lot of the time, yes. But not all the time.
Amidst abundant scientific research demonstrating that psychedelics catalyze profound healing for an ever-expanding cast of conditions, many advocates appear to have forgotten that psychedelics can also inflict harm. Despite suggestions from mainstream narratives, taking psychedelics is not a guaranteed route to healing. Just as psychedelics can heal our wounds, they can also amplify our capacity to avoid those wounds — and, in the case of the face-vomiting Ball, even inflict them on others.
Plunder the depths of Erowid and you’ll find no shortage of reports of psychedelics catalyzing psychotic breaks. Read through Chacruna‘s website, and you’ll find abundant articles on sexism and racism in psychedelic spaces, sometimes at high levels of influential organizations. Dig deeper, and you’ll find stories of people being physically, psychologically, and sexually abused in “safe” psychedelic environments.
Psychedelics are non-specific amplifiers, meaning they can amplify our darkness as well as our light. Just as psychedelics can open space for curious inquiry and new perspectives, they also provide fertile ground for embedding distorted beliefs and behaviors more deeply. If psychedelics solely induced awakening, why would the CIA spend decades researching their potential to control people in myriad ways?
Intention and context make all the difference. When self-delusion is the operating principle, psychedelics can amplify the delusion. And we mustn’t underestimate the mind’s capacity to delude itself. In the words of Carl Jung, “People will do anything, no matter how absurd, in order to avoid facing their own souls.”
And still a perspective spreads that psychedelics can only transform our world for the better, and anyone who raises concerns about their potential harms is a “threat to the movement.” Victims and their allies are silenced by a chorus of proselytizers who justify themselves, saying, “We’re so close to FDA approval! It’s not worth putting all this progress in jeopardy!”
No one wants another Nixon slamming down the great gavel on substances that can clearly help countless people. But when avoidant patterns proliferate unchecked, they become a culture, and when a culture avoids serious issues and vilifies those who speak about them, that culture deepens traumatic neural pathways that damage ourselves, our loved ones, and our world.
No matter how enraptured in the Godhead its constituents become, a culture that evades its most pervasive issues will never be a culture of widespread healing.
Why Do People Engage in Psychedelic Bypassing?
Sometimes, it’s as simple as refusing to hear what we don’t want to hear. For instance, early in 2021, preliminary research from Imperial College London showed that the life-enhancing benefits of microdosing, as reported on countless podcasts and blogs, may be attributable to the placebo effect.
The response of the microdosing community?
A chorus of people instantly ripped on the study, refusing to consider the possibility that the results had validity, because… well, the results didn’t jive with their beliefs (or their business interests).
Such instances of bypassing are easy to recognize. Other times, bypassing is more complex, stemming from sources beyond the reach of awareness.
Psychological vs. Spiritual Bypassing
Robert Augustus Masters argues that bypassing flourishes when the spiritual is separate from and given more significance than the psychological. Countless spiritual practices emphasize “letting go” of pain, securing stability in a palace of positivity whose iron gates seal out all dementors. “Don’t mind the dementors that breach the castle in your nightmares!” the spiritual teacher preaches. “Just focus on the light, and your pain will dissolve away.”
The thing is, that pain often stems from psychological wounds, and spiritual practice that denies it won’t make it disappear. While meditation can be healing, it can also enhance patterns of disassociation and withdrawal that bar people from experiencing intimacy and love.
Buddhist teacher Jack Kornfield speaks to this phenomenon in his book, A Path With Heart. After a decade of vigorous Buddhist training, Kornfield felt he had resolved his issues. However, when he returned to the States and entered a romantic relationship, he found he was “still emotionally immature, acting out the same painful patterns of blame and fear, acceptance and rejection that I had before my Buddhist training.”
Kornfield’s monastic isolation kept him distant from his deepest wounds, which were relational in nature. “I’ve seen how many other students misunderstand spiritual practice, how many have hoped to use it to escape from their lives” and “avoid the pains and difficulties of human existence” writes Kornfield.
Whether we meditate for decades or blast ourselves into cosmic unity with every psychedelic under the sun, we still may be avoiding the most pertinent issues stunting our psychological development.
The Traps of Transcendence and Oneness
Transcendence is a psychedelic buzzword, often regarded as a healing path of “overcoming” wounds and becoming more whole. It can also justify bypassing, for many transcenders cast negative judgment on that which must be transcended — often their psychological and emotional pain.
“When transcendence of our personal history takes precedence over intimacy with our personal history, spiritual bypassing is inevitable,” Masters writes. Healthy transcendence embraces that which is transcended, while “unhealthy transcendence avoids it, making a spiritual virtue out of rising above whatever is deemed ‘lower’ or ‘darker’ elements of our nature.”
In the framework of influential transpersonal psychologist Ken Wilber, development is not about transcending, but transcending and including what came before.
Transcendence is similar to another psychedelic buzzword, “oneness.” In the face of conflict and difference, many psychedelic advocates like to remind others that “we are all one.” While this is true at some metaphysical level, it invalidates the reality of difference and the struggles many face because of those differences, such as people who hold marginalized identities and experience overt oppression every day.
What kind of “oneness” casts out all who don’t bliss out on the same medicine? Nothing more than the oneness of a bubble that resists what threatens to pop it.
The Happy Place Where Egos Die
Masters writes that we are vulnerable to spiritual bypassing when we practice to reach a better place — where suffering is abolished, where love and light reign in the resuscitated Garden of Eden.
When that’s the ideal, we villainize and shame the parts of ourselves we believe block us from that idealized perfection. We may even deny their existence, because according to our high/low, positive/negative ethic, these parts indicate we are far from reaching Happy Fun Land. If we’ve been presenting ourselves as a spiritually-evolved being, then no one can know about these parts of us. So we shove them down with a Buddha smile, forcing ourselves to connect to compassion and eliminate the enemy of our “lower” nature.
This trend is especially evident in the psychedelic concept of “ego death.” Psychedelic folks often villainize the “ego,” which is typically comprised of these “lower” aspects of our nature. When ego death is the aim, anything resembling ego becomes an obstacle. When ego is not recognized as an essential part of our inner world, that essential part of our inner world becomes the villain, creating a war within ourselves.
I imagine this is partly due to psychedelic healing being framed in the same way that yoga, meditation, and numerous “alternative” healing methods are marketed: Do this, and your life will improve dramatically. This idea is even more intoxicating with psychedelics because a) they work faster, and b) a boatload of science backs up their efficacy. But when we fall prey to this “magic pill” mentality, we follow a falsely advertised claim that psychedelics will transport us to Big Rock Candy Mountain, where our egoic problems evaporate.
This thin narrative brings too little focus to the fact that psychedelic healing isn’t sustainable without significant changes in lifestyle and thought patterns. Feeling awesome and gaining perspective on your suffering is rarely sufficient. It is the beginning of a new path, and without commitment to new ways of being, benefits tend to vanish as quickly as they appeared.
Psychedelic folks often speak of “integration” as some finite place, like, “I integrated deep realizations about my anxiety on MDMA, so now it’s gone!” Healing isn’t always linear, nor is it about arrival. It can be cyclical, and when we cling to states of bliss, we bypass whatever threatens those states’ supremacy. Integration isn’t a final arrival, but an ongoing process of active engagement. As Jung wrote, “There is no linear evolution; there is only a circumambulation of the self.”
Recognizing Dualistic Thinking
Bypassing can also be a symptom of dualistic thinking getting carried into the nondual realms psychedelics can open, where reality does not abide by rational structures. Rather than categorical frameworks like “good/bad” and “self/other” ruling the day, the ground of truth becomes paradox, beyond the reach of reason’s limits. As rationality fights to make sense of such an experience, it often subjects the paradoxical to the categorical, applying dualistic labels like “good” and “bad,” and “me” and “not me” to the experience.
Picture this: say I have a mystical experience on five grams of mushrooms, and I realize that at my core, I am love embodied. I’m so immersed in the experience that I am certain my demons have been forever cleansed. Three days later, I get cut off on the highway, and a familiar anger takes hold as I curse that reckless SOB. I pause, thinking, “This anger can’t be me, because I now know I am pure love, and I can’t be love and simultaneously feel such hostility.” So I reject my anger, creating a schism in my psyche that spawns a dualistic battle that will rage indefinitely, no matter how vehemently I deny it.
If, on the other hand, I recognize that I can be love embodied and feel intense anger at the same time, I give myself more space. In that space, I can feel anger without identifying it or fearing it is me at the core.
Passivity and Aversion to Anger
In numerous spiritual communities, anger is the quintessential “low vibe” emotion. Countless frameworks teach to restrict its expression, if not eliminate it completely. Only then can you abide in whatever nirvanic illusion is the goal.
The problem is, anger is an essential human emotion, and a powerful one. Powerful emotions don’t just go away when we deny them. They get stronger, and even if we stop ourselves from expressing them externally, we end up expressing them toward ourselves.
“There isn’t any such thing as a negative emotion,” Masters writes. “There are negative things we do with our emotions, but our emotions themselves are neither negative nor positive. They simply are.”
When we judge anger, we are often judging harmful expressions of anger, such as hostility and violence. The emotion and the behavior are distinct, and becoming more intimate with the emotion and its sources will open healthier, more conscious avenues of expression.
When we judge our anger as “bad energy,” we judge it as such in others. When a community validates that judgment as virtuous, that community shuns an essential emotion that has a lot to teach us about boundaries, needs, and deep wounds.
In hearing about practitioners abusing clients, it makes sense to be angry. If we shun our anger, we disregard the wisdom of this response and may even justify the practitioner’s behavior, saying, “They’re doing their best. Who am I to judge if that’s right or wrong?” In that response, both our anger and someone’s harmful behavior are bypassed under a distorted ethic of “acceptance” and “forgiveness.” This encourages a passivity akin to numbness, a glorified distancing from a dark reality and the looming prospect of confrontation. It’s more comfortable to just “let it go.”
Maybe this trend is reducible to a reluctance to cast judgment. Moral relativism — the notion that each person’s moral code is justified unto itself — is a seductive ethos, but it promotes a passivity that allows harm to flourish unchecked. Anger about harmful behaviors is not “bad energy”; it is a valid, important response to issues that could implode this whole psychedelic renaissance if they remain unchecked. Transformation can only come by calling problematic issues to conscious light, and anger can sometimes show us where those issues lay.
What is Guru Syndrome?
The psychedelic space is home to many self-appointed “guru” facilitators, many of whom are far less skilled at facilitation than they are at bypassing. How else could a self-described “healer” inflict sexual abuse on participants — an ongoing problem in psychedelic spaces — and free themselves of responsibility?
According to Masters, this form of bypassing spawns from “delusions of having arrived at a higher level of being.” Quite likely, these facilitators have had profound psychedelic experiences, and they mistakenly “confuse the attainment of such states with being at an advanced stage of spiritual practice.”
Here’s where psychedelics create a particularly tricky form of bypassing. Unlike meditation, which can take years to induce a peak experience, psychedelics can rocket anyone into sudden confrontation with the mystical. The confrontation can be so earth-shattering that the individual emerges completely certain they have been reborn, where yesterday’s troubles that occupied their “previous self” have forever melted away. That may be true for a while, but what about when yesterday’s troubles return? Since this experience birthed them anew, those troubles can no longer be them, right? This person fails to recognize this new “egoless” persona is actually the structure of a new ego that bears more similarities to the previous one than they care to admit. And how could it not, with root issues continuing to fester unresolved?
The danger then emerges as justification of harmful behavior. “Even clearly abusive behavior on the part of a spiritual teacher may be excused as an opportunity for students to grow in their practice,” Masters writes. It’s gaslighting to the extreme, fueled by an ego-boasting infallibility under the claim it is egoless and insusceptible to “lower” impulses.
It may be tempting to pass this trend off to a handful of underground practitioners, but recent revelations again show that above-ground clinicians are susceptible as well. Researcher Matthew Johnson describes this trend as “the inclination to believe that the nature of the experiences people have on psychedelics are so sacred or important that the normal rules do not apply, whether they be the rules governing clinical boundaries, the practice of clinical psychology or medicine, sound philosophy of science, or ethics.”
“Psychedelics might magnify the subtle abuses of differential power that can be at play in the routine practice of clinical psychology or medicine,” Johnson continues. “The scientist or clinician might, perhaps without explicit awareness, fall into the trap of playing guru or priest, imparting personal philosophies without a solid empirical basis.”
While psychedelics can amplify the healing of therapy, they can also amplify the transference — a client’s unconscious feelings toward the therapist. If practitioners are adept at bypassing, they are vulnerable to excess countertransference — the therapist’s feelings in response to the client’s transference. That countertransference can manifest in harmful ways, and the practitioner can justify their harmful behaviors as “part of the client’s healing” — exactly how Martin Ball justified vomiting on his client’s face.
Responsibility in Facilitating Journeys in Non-Ordinary States
What level of psychedelic bypassing has to occur for people who have allegedly perpetrated significant abuses in psychedelic spaces to rise the ranks and become some of the most influential spokespeople of the entire psychedelic ecosystem?
Part of me wants to give those who stay silent during abuse scandals the benefit of the doubt, to bury my responses beneath a higher kind of “understanding” and “forgiveness.”
Maybe everyone deserves a second chance, but giving people a shot at redemption cannot be the same as enabling them to perpetuate harms without consequence. Taking an honest look at our capacity to bypass, with or without psychedelics, strikes me as a good place to start.
Editor’s Note:To date, no empirical studies have concluded that psychedelics cure long COVID. Though case study research in this area is ongoing, this article represents one person’s experience and should not be taken as medical advice. For a more comprehensive understanding of this topic, we encourage you to listen to the full episode of our May 31, 2024 podcast, which includes a broader conversation with experts in the field.
Driven by a deep need for relief and guided by curiosity, in 2022 I turned to psychedelics in my battle against long COVID. What started as a mission to manage post-viral symptoms transformed into a meaningful exploration of psychedelic healing, culminating in unexpected relief, and a shift in my life path. This is my story of navigating the challenges of long COVID, the healthcare system, and my own journey to recovery through the use of psychedelic medicines.
The Turning Point
While I might not be the typical image of a person experimenting with psychedelics, my situation led me there. A married 40-something suburban mother of two, working in academia and technology, I was an unlikely candidate for a psychedelic journey. Yet, desperation and long COVID pushed me in this direction. The fear of stigma and the potential impact on my professional reputation initially made me hesitant to share my experience with substances that remain illegal. However, meeting Court Wing, a passionate advocate for the potential of psychedelics in treating chronic pain and long COVID, changed my perspective. I met Court at a Plant Parenthood integration circle for parents using plant medicines. In that session, I discussed my initial experiences with plant medicines, unaware that this would lead to my story being featured in a medical journal, and even mentioned in TIME magazine.
The Challenge of Long COVID
In early 2022, my life seemed on track. I had a great job at a Canadian university, a bustling family life, and I had just started a Ph.D. My husband, Neil, supported my career ambitions as a full-time caregiver to our children. The U.S.-Canada border reopening in early 2022 prompted me to take the kids to visit family in Connecticut.
We were fully vaccinated and took precautions to keep from contracting the virus. But the Omicron variant was still circulating, and at some point before leaving for our trip, we were exposed and became ill.
The journey back to Canada, coupled with an extended isolation and constant scrutiny from health authorities, left me exhausted, stressed, and at a low point in my mental health.
Severe COVID-19 patients often arrive at the hospital already in respiratory crises. I never needed oxygen, but COVID-19 devastated my body and brain in many ways, initially unbeknownst to me. The aftermath was debilitating: I couldn’t think or regulate my emotions, suffered from severe fatigue, confusion, headaches, and a deepening depression. The healthcare system offered little support, with constant changes in my primary care situation and delayed access to a long COVID clinic.
Determined to recover, I initially pushed myself too hard, only to relapse and sink deeper into despair. I then shifted to prioritizing self-care, including meditative walks in the forest, which helped mildly with depression and brain fog but hit a plateau in cognitive recovery.
After a few months, I was finally able to get a referral, and was accepted into the local hospital’s long COVID rehab clinic. I was so relieved that I would finally get proper care. Then the other shoe dropped – ‘getting in’ only meant that I was now on the waitlist. The estimated wait was a staggering seven months.
From then on, I entered reluctantly into a new phase of acceptance. I made self-care my only priority.
Despite the lack of health care, I took my care and rehabilitation into my own hands. I joined long COVID online communities and read the recent research.
Turning to Psychedelics for Help with Long COVID
My research on emerging treatments led me to anecdotes of psychedelics aiding COVID-related olfactory loss and brain fog. The growing evidence of psychedelics treating depression, anxiety, addictions, and trauma piqued my interest further. Though no clinical trials were testing psychedelics for long COVID, the safety and efficacy in related conditions motivated me to experiment on myself.
My journey led me to a friend and trained guide, Kate, who understood my symptoms due to her own severe traumatic brain injury. Kate guided me through a psilocybin and MDMA-assisted ceremony that became a transformational experience, comparable to the births of my children in its impact. Almost overnight, my anxiety and depression vanished and my cognitive clarity returned. My headaches eased dramatically. The veil of the long COVID fog was gone.
Learning to Live Again
I cautiously eased back into life. I experienced no crashes in the week following the ceremony, and continually increased my exercise until I reached my pre-COVID workout routine. The day I reached my usual 40 laps in the pool, I knew in my heart that I was truly on the path to recovery. Within weeks of this journey, I initiated a progressive return to work.
Over time, I began to see sharing my story as a responsibility to those suffering from long COVID and other conditions that could benefit from psychedelic medicines. My experience has profoundly changed my personal and professional direction, and I am now pursuing studies in Psychedelics and Consciousness at the University of Ottawa.
My greatest hope is that I can contribute in some small way to the launch of clinical trials for the use of MDMA and psilocybin for the treatment of long COVID. My story is mine alone, but hopefully it will serve to inspire others.
Psychedelics have been a part of Australia’s cultural landscape for decades, gaining renewed interest for their potential for healing and self-exploration. If you’re considering or pursuing a career in psychedelics in Australia or want to understand how we got to where we are, you need to know where we’ve been.
The Deep Past and Early History of Psychedelics in Australia
It’s worth noting this article was written from a non-Indigenous perspective. So, even with the best intentions, any discussion of pre-European psychedelic history given here is inherently incomplete.
Australia has a long and rich history of customs, traditions, and knowledge that pre-dates European colonization by many tens of thousands of years. So, it’s natural to ask about the Indigenous use of species such as Psilocybe subaeruginosa.
Anthropological and historical records don’t support that Indigenous Australians used plants or fungi as classic psychedelics. But we don’t know what natural medicinal knowledge was lost through the widespread displacement, genocide, and destruction of culture that First Nations in Australia have experienced since colonization began in 1788. So, we can’t know for sure.
Some people believe there is secret Indigenous knowledge of psychedelics. If there is, maybe once we collectively acknowledge that modern Australia is built on stolen land, we’d finally be deserving of it. A great deal more reconciliation work needs to be done to improve understanding of Indigenous culture and connection to plant medicine generally.
Regarding psychedelics, Australia was quiet for the next hundred and fifty years after colonization. But during that time, we developed a voracious appetite for mind-altering substances, particularly alcohol, opium, and cocaine. Sadly, we were also relatively early adopters of racially and politically motivated laws prohibiting drugs (other than alcohol, of course). So, when psychedelics finally came onto the scene, we were primed to adopt them enthusiastically and make the same legal and social mistakes as basically every other country attempting to manage drugs in their respective societies.
The Counterculture Psychedelic Explosion
Two factors primarily drove the emergence of psychedelics into popular culture in Australia. One was the Vietnam War. American service personnel based here or visiting on leave bought many novel ideas – one of them was LSD (along with heroin and cannabis).
The other was the rise of surfing culture over the ’60s. This attracted surfers, including many from California, who knew about Psilocybe cubensis. In 1969, the Sydney Sunday Telegraph and the Canberra Times claimed that people in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales were eating Psilocybe cubensis for its psychedelic effects. Mycologists, J. Picker and R.W. Rickards reported psilocybin in the native P. subaeruginosa in 1970, and awareness of the potency of this native mushroom spread quickly.
Like the rest of the world, the counterculture era in Australia was also a time when psychedelics were used in questionable circumstances. One of the most high-profile examples centers on a cult known as The Family (also known as Santiniketan Park Association or the Great White Brotherhood). This group operated in the Dandenong area outside of Melbourne and had a small but active membership of medical professionals who practiced an eclectic mix of Christian and yogic traditions.
One of the members, Marion Villimek, owned and operated the Newhaven psychiatric hospital in nearby Kew. Many of the staff at the facility, including psychiatrists and nurses, were also involved with the cult. Officially, the hospital supplied a range of interventions, including LSD psychotherapy. Many “patients” had no official diagnoses, but their treatments were part of the group’s recruitment process.
And while Australian participation in MK-Ultra was mainly around hypnosis research, our defense department reportedly researched how to synthesize mescaline from eucalyptus sawdust (entirely innocent purposes, I’m sure).
The reaction of mainstream society and politicians to psychedelics in Australia largely mirrored the responses elsewhere. Popular culture firmly linked LSD and psilocybin mushrooms to hippie counterculture and the anti-war movement. Local media effectively used these associations to incite wide-scale moral panic. Just as we followed the U.S. into Vietnam, our politicians enthusiastically signed us up for Nixon’s War on Drugs. The party, in every possible sense, was over.
The Underground Revival of Psychedelics in Australia
In the ’80s and ’90s, most above-ground psychedelic activity languished, though isolated pockets of research continued, including Dr. Balvant R. Sitaram’s extensive investigations into the psychotomimetic nature of DMT.
But during this same time, the underground in Australia was quite different. Against a backdrop of burgeoning outdoor raves (locally known as “doofs”) and recreational MDMA, a subtle change was afoot. Entheogenic knowledge was rapidly expanding via dedicated communities of citizen scientists and enthusiastic psychonauts, many of whom were members of the world’s longest-running ethnobotanical online forum, The Corroboree.
In 1992, an enterprising University of Sydney chemistry student found scientific records that there were native acacia species that contained DMT. Their story of finding the plants, extracting, and then trying the DMT would be published in a student newspaper, then find its way onto the Lyceum and Erowid. Australian DMT had been set loose upon the world!
In one of his last journeys abroad, Terence McKenna spoke about DMT at the Beyond the Brain club in Byron Bay in 1997. He also left another B.caapi vine cutting in Australia, setting off a chain of events leading to the rise of local ayahuasca circles.
In 2004, Australia saw the first Entheogenesis Australis (EGA) conference held in Belgrave, Victoria, introducing a wider Australian audience to the study of ethnobotanical plants. The centrality of EGA to psychedelics in Australia can’t be overstated.
For example, in 2010, MAPS founder Rick Doblin attended the EGA Symposium. Discussions with him after a workshop led to the formation of Psychedelic Research in Science & Medicine (PRISM), Australia’s leading psychedelic research charity.
Around the same time as EGA was kicking off, changa appeared. Changa has a range of formulations, but it’s essentially acacia DMT recrystallized on dried B. caapi leaf or bark shavings, along with ingredients such as mullein or blue lotus. Smoking changa is gentler and longer lasting than vaporizing DMT due to the MAOI effect of the ayahuasca leaf.
By the end of 2010, the rise of MAPS and Doblin’s visit gave tapped-in Australians a sense that something bigger was happening with psychedelics. As someone who watched these events unfold from the late ’90s onward, I can tell you – we had no idea what was coming.
Recent Psychedelic Developments
The last decade has been one of unexpected growth and change for psychedelics in Australia. In terms of above-ground activities and broader community awareness, more has happened since 2000 than in the previous century. New organizations like the Australian Psychedelic Society and Mind Medicine Australia have appeared, each with their own visions for the future of psychedelics, which influenced their focus on issues like clinical access or decriminalization.
But no event was more momentous or surprising than the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) decision to add psilocybin and MDMA to Schedule 8 in February 2023, permitting their use as controlled drugs by specialist psychiatrists (albeit only under specific circumstances and with a great deal of paperwork). This change, driven in no small part by Mind Medicine Australia’s allegedly relentless lobbying, caught many of us off-guard, and has driven a massive and sustained increase in community and commercial interest in psychedelics. The first legal offerings in this area have gone live in recent months, with reported prices for a full course of treatment of up to $25,000 AUD ($16,625 USD).
The underground continues to grow in Australia as more people become aware of the potential of psychedelics to relieve suffering, to change how they relate to the world and themselves. Psilocybin use has doubledsince 2019, meaning that nearly 500,000 Australians used them between 2022 and 2023. If nothing else, this should serve as a reminder that, in terms of raw numbers at least, the mainstream of psychedelics here is very much out in the wild.
Organizations such as AMAPP aspire to be the peak body for legal psychedelic-assisted therapy in Australia. Clinical professionals are navigating new processes with regulators, for treatments they may never have administered before. Legal reform advocates continue their efforts to end the War on Drugs.
How any of this will play out is uncertain. But there’s definitely something meaningful happening with psychedelics in Australia worth paying attention to.
Are you interested in being part of the future of psychedelic therapy in Australia? Check out our comprehensive course, Navigating Psychedelics: Australia. Developed with the best of international expertise and local knowledge, it could be the first step in finding your place as a psychedelic professional.
The body seems to mend itself from illness and injuries without conscious effort. Yet when the mind wanders down a deep self-loathing abyss, it can get stuck there for years. Amidst serotonin-boosting drugs and clinical psychotherapy, millions still suffer from persistent depression. But within this reality, a more profound truth might be at play.
According to psychedelic therapists, researchers, and explorers, the mind doesn’t have to accept unyielding despair: all humans, they say, may have an ‘inner healer’ who can guide them to balance.
This article explores the concept of inner healing in psychedelic therapy, examining the theory, the debate, and the latest study testing its merits, led by Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris.
What is the Inner Healer?
According to leading psychedelic theories, the inner healer is “the innate capacity or wisdom of the self to guide its own healing process.”
The inner healer is the deep knowing that emerges from the subconscious to help people resolve emotional and psychological challenges. It empowers them to navigate back to their intrinsic wholeness.
The notion posits that just as the body naturally mends wounds, the mind can instinctively recover from depression, PTSD, anxiety, and all other imbalances when freed from habitual fears that command ordinary consciousness.
In the context of psychedelics, MDMA, psilocybin, and DMT facilitate access to this profound wisdom. And through therapeutic support, psychedelic explorers can safely self-direct their own transformation.
Psychedelic therapy sessions offer a safe haven for people to work through trauma and conditioning. The experience can create a unique bond between the therapist and client, akin to a healthy parent-child relationship, where the client feels open to exploring challenging topics.
Along the way, clients may reconnect with and soothe exiled parts of themselves, like the wounded inner child who unconsciously drives their habitual patterns. By soothing these traumatized parts, clients might experience greater ease, compassion, integrity, and flexibility in their daily lives.
Modern Emergence of the Inner Healer in Psychedelic Therapy
Psychotherapist Dr. Michael Mithoefer was integral in spreading the inner healer theory throughout the psychedelic movement.
In a pivotal 2013 Bulletin published by The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelics Studies (MAPS), Mithoefer reflected on the mysterious nature of the mind and challenges in understanding how psychotherapy – be it MDMA-assisted or traditional approaches – really works. Rather than struggling for comprehension, he embraced the tension.
“We [as psychotherapists] strive to do rigorous science without losing sight of the remarkable richness of the process as we observe and participate in it,” Mithoefer said.
Inspired by psychologist Stanislav Grof’s transpersonal theories, Mithoefer asserted that psychotherapy wields effects across emotional, cognitive, physical, energetic, and spiritual levels. And that psychedelics’ pharmacological mechanisms play a role in the process. But he emphasized that the client’s inner healing pathway in relationship to the therapist and the medicine was the key to guiding transformation.
Mithoefer quoted psychedelic therapy patients in the article whose experience embodied the inner healer theory:
“I keep getting the message from the medicine, ‘trust me.’ When I try to think, it doesn’t work out, but when I just let the waves of fear and anxiety come up, it feels like the medicine is going in and getting them, bringing them up, and then they dissipate.”
“Maybe one of the things the drug does is let your mind relax and get out of the way because the mind is so protective about the injury,” he said.
Co-authored by Dr. Mithoefer and MAPS Founder Rick Doblin P.h.D., the manual emphasizes prioritizing the patient’s wisdom over the therapist’s expertise. It provides instructions for practitioners to take a non-directive approach to psychedelic therapy. It invites clinicians to listen empathetically and encourages the patient to trust their own capacity to heal from trauma and inner child wounds. In underpinning the approach, the manual emphasizes respecting each patient’s ability to process painful memories on their own terms.
MAPS’ MDMA protocol is now with the FDA for a new drug application review. If approved, the inner healing pathway may be seminal to the first nationally regulated psychedelic therapy program.
Following MAPS’ lead, psychedelic therapy researchers, universities, training programs, educators, and practitioners have broadly adopted the inner-directed therapeutic approach. Even ketamine clinics have embraced the practice despite the dissociative compounds’ distinction from classic psychedelics.
Trusting the client’s inner guidance during psychedelic therapy is so ubiquitous the method appears in Colorado’s draft rules for psilocybin facilitators. Under the state’s Natural Medicine Act, practitioners must prepare clients for psychedelic sessions by advising them to trust their inner guidance, inner genius, the self, wise mind, soul, or spirit.
Unlike Colorado, Oregon doesn’t require psilocybin facilitators to employ inner healer models. However, the state’s service centers promote the approach, including Satya Therapeutics and Omnia Group.
The Industry Debate
Despite widespread consensus, not every psychedelic proponent ascribes to the inner healer theory. A recent article challenged the notion that people possess this inherent capacity.
The critique raised several concerns about the inner healer’s scientific validity, coherence, and mystical undertones. It argued that attributing healing to unexplainable subconscious forces may oversimplify complex psychological processes, leading to pseudoscientific woo-woo practices. It also cautioned against inappropriately introducing spiritual-based therapies into tax-funded programs. Finally, the article pointed to the contradictory nature of a “self-led” process that requires significant intervention from therapists and hallucinogens.
Proponents of the theory, however, emphasize that therapists merely facilitate access to deep healing. But that they are not the source of the healing, per se. These practitioners believe that psychedelics serve as the prime catalysts for unlocking humans’ innate wisdom and that their role is to help people address unresolved wounds in a safe and supportive setting.
At the same time, proponents acknowledge that their perspective is steeped primarily in observation rather than empiricism.
The Inner Healer Study
Famed psychedelic researcher Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris does not see the inner healer as mystical or supernatural. He believes in its credibility, publishing a placebo-controlled study, “Psychedelics and the ‘inner healer’: Myth or mechanism? to “deconstruct, test, and potentially validate” the concept.
The research randomly assigned 59 participants diagnosed with moderate-to-severe depression to two groups: one receiving high-dose psilocybin therapy and the other a placebo alongside the antidepressant, escitalopram. Both groups receive psychological support.
Psilocybin therapy group: Participants received two high doses (25 mg) of psilocybin three weeks apart. They also received a daily placebo after the first dosing session.
Escitalopram therapy group: Participants received two placebo doses (1 mg) of psilocybin three weeks apart. They also received daily escitalopram for six weeks. The dosage was 10 mg for the first three weeks and 20 mg for the last three.
After the sessions, participants completed an assessment called the “inner healer item,” where they rated the degree to which they strongly agreed or disagreed with the following statement:
“I felt like my body/mind/brain was healing itself, automatically/naturally/by itself.”
The Results
In the end, the high-dose psilocybin group was far more likely to report inner healer experiences compared to the escitalopram group. Additionally, higher inner healer scores within the psilocybin group marked greater declines in depression symptoms two weeks after the protocol. Additionally, patients who reported higher inner healer scores experienced more significant mental health outcomes, regardless of the self-reported intensity of the psychedelic effects.
Critics argue that the results might be skewed because the study focused solely on patient perspectives during medicine session days. It did not ask the escitalopram group about their inner healing experiences throughout the therapeutic protocol.
Additionally, according to the research team, the study did not empirically prove whether the inner healer feeling is an intrinsic, quantifiable neural mechanism or an event caused by subtle therapeutic guidance.
Still, the outcomes suggest that the inner healer construct, defined as “the belief that psychedelic compounds, plants or concoctions have an intrinsically regenerative action on the mind and brain…” is a substantive phenomenon worth investigating further using detailed scales and qualitative methods.
Enduring mental health may rely on this integrative approach.
It’s no secret that psychedelics and creativity are intrinsically linked. If you look around, you won’t have to go very far to find psychedelic-inspired byproducts from visionary figures whose work has changed the world, from Yoko Ono, to Aldous Huxley, to Steve Jobs.
While psychedelics’ impact on art is well-documented, the psychedelic influence on design remains largely unexplored, despite luminaries like Jobs attributing psychedelic experiences to shaping their design ethos.
How do people working in the design world work with psychedelics in 2024? Spoiler: psychedelics are being used to foster unconventional problem-solving, inspire new empathic design systems, and lead to designs that reconnect people with each other and the planet.
Psychedelics and the Creative Process
Psychedelic experiences influence creative processes in various ways. Research and anecdotal evidence suggest that psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin can enhance creative thinking by inducing a hyper-associative state of cognition, increasing global entropy in the brain, and reducing conventional, logical thinking while giving rise to novel thoughts and insights. A 2022 Beckley Foundation study revealed that psychedelics can lead to a shift of cognitive resources towards originality, convergence, and symbolic thinking, which are fundamental phenomena for creativity. The altered state induced by psychedelics can unlock creativity by allowing individuals to imagine things that don’t exist, experience profound visual and sensory hallucinations, and increase connectivity in brain networks associated with idea generation and evaluation.
“My current creative process is intrinsically connected to psychedelics,” said Jannyl Molina, Psychedelics Today graphic designer. As part of her role, she reads unpublished articles (including this one), to distill and visually articulate the main themes and conceptual complexities such as ‘integration,’ the ‘default mode network,’ and the ‘War on Drugs.’
“In a way, my process for design is really informed by past psychedelic experience and current research,” Molina said. A 2019 Maastricht University study found that psilocybin has several notable effects on creative thinking. It led to a differentiation of effects over time and across constructs; it resulted in higher ratings of spontaneous creative insights; it decreased deliberate, task-based creativity; and seven days after psilocybin use, the number of novel ideas continued to be elevated.
Reconnecting Nature and Humanity Through Life-Centric Design
Beyond just design, there’s a bigger idea at play. Based on our work at Psychedelics Design, a platform exploring how psychedelics and design overlap, we think the benefits of psychedelics could deeply change how designers create.
By helping us understand what people need and making us appreciate nature more, psychedelics may inspire products and systems that are innovative, beautiful, profitable, and also good for the planet.
In design, it can’t be overstated the degree to which psychedelic experiences change an individual’s view of how humans and nature are connected. These profound experiences frequently evoke a profound sense of unity and interconnectedness among all life forms.
For designers, these new perspectives can become their inspiration to use more earth-friendly methods in their work. It may inspire switching to green materials and putting nature first in the assembly of their work. Psychedelic experiences also fill the design process with more caring and respect for nature, possibly guiding designers to solutions that keep ecosystems in balance.
“You likely can’t get too far into psychedelic exploration without feeling a deeper connection to nature. As we like to remind people in our work, everything is designed – by humans or by nature. And spoiler alert: humans are, in fact, just another expression of nature,” say Tracy DeLuca, founder of the How Might We Design LLC., and Elysa Fenenbock, founder of The School of Psychedelic Design. Both are instructors of Stanford’s Psychedelic Medicine x Design course.
“More specifically, psychedelic experiences have profoundly reshaped our view and reconnected us with nature’s own creative problem-solving abilities, honed over billions of years of evolution. Psychedelics have expanded our understanding of what’s possible in problem-solving and encouraged us to consider the needs of all living beings, not just humans,” the pair wrote.
A long-term follow-up study by MAPS founder Rick Doblin of the Good Friday experiment found that participants’ appreciation for life and nature was enhanced 24 years after their psilocybin experience, suggesting long-lasting impacts on nature-relatedness. The findings from these studies align with the biophilia hypothesis, which argues that humans naturally prefer nature because we evolved in it.
Molina says she found “greater urgency to care for nature and take care of others” when under the influence of psychedelics.
“It’s as if that inner wisdom says to me, ‘you are healing and need to aid others in their healing, so that Earth can also heal.’ That becomes louder each time I journey,” she said.
This natural connection may be why many people choose outdoorsy settings for psychedelic experiences and report a deep appreciation of the world around them. Together, this research suggests psychedelics could help fix our modern disconnect from nature by making us feel more connected to and appreciative of the environment.
Creative System Changes Through Psychedelic Design
The idea of changing how we design things after having mind-opening experiences with psychedelics is exciting. Instead of only thinking about what’s best for humans, we can think about what’s best for all living things. This could help us work together better and fix big problems in the world.
This shift from human-centered to life-centered design holds promise for addressing complex issues and presents an opportunity for designers to elevate their collaborative efforts with clients and stakeholders. Rather than isolating themselves within traditional structures, designers can integrate more deeply into organizations, becoming integral parts of the growth ecosystem.
“In the realm of healthcare, psychedelic medicine shows promise not only in providing relief for individual mental health challenges but also in catalyzing a broader transformation of our broken healthcare systems,” DeLuca adds.
By embracing principles of expanded consciousness, conscious connectedness, collaboration, regeneration, and reciprocity, the Psychedelics Design Philosophy offers the potential to revolutionize the very essence of how we approach design, moving beyond mere problem-solving to co-creating harmonious and sustainable solutions that resonate with the interconnectedness of all things.
While there is plenty of room and indeed a need for the design process to evolve and benefit from an expanded state of knowing and doing, Jeff Salazar, partner at McKinsey Design, sees potential to more dramatically shift design structures.
“After 30 years of consulting experience, I’ve seen many teams have less impact than they are truly capable of by isolating themselves as the keepers of the process and/or are hampered by living within a corporate structure that puts them a Grand Canyon away from where strategy gets shaped. To this point, I’m inspired to see us open the aperture on how we might reimagine ‘design’ becoming even more a part of (not apart from) the organizations and institutions that can gain greater benefit from the practice,” Salazar said.
The chance to create new ways of designing naturally with psychedelics is a hopeful idea for the future of creativity. It lets us go past the limits of how we design things now and imagine a new way forward. This way of designing is about being open, aware, working together, helping things grow back, and being good to each other. It could change not just how we make new things but also help make bigger changes in the world.
“It is from being in an expanded-state, that designers can gain new perspectives on their role – not only in creating highly desirable, harmonious and sustainable solutions – but also to help broaden and challenge how they engage within the overall ecosystem of growth,” Salazar said.
By using what we’ve learned from psychedelic experiences, we can start to take apart old ways of doing things that don’t work anymore. We can make a system that includes everyone and lasts a long time. Ultimately, this can lead to a world where all living things live together in a fair and peaceful way.
What Creatives Can Learn From Set & Setting
Making new things can seem impressive, but it’s a lot of hard work and can be tiring for both the body and the mind. Just like in psychedelics, having the right attitude and a good environment – a.k.a. ‘set and setting’ – is essential.
Similarly for creators, who often possess heightened sensitivity, factors like sound, scent, and others’ emotions can profoundly impact their work. Creative agencies and some tech giants have known for a long time that it’s important to give their workers a place where they can flourish. A great workplace for creatives might offer different rooms to work, a variety of refreshments, places to sit quietly, opportunities to practice yoga, and special headphones to block noise in busy work spaces.
Henry Winslow, founder of Tricycleday, says psychedelics have shifted in his perspective on the creative process.
“I don’t force ideas anymore; I create space for ideas now. It might sound like a semantic shift, but it’s not. In my days working at giant agencies, we’d schedule 30 or 60-minute structured brainstorming sessions. They didn’t reliably generate anything remarkable. Now, I understand that the answers are within me. It may sound corny, but I just have to create the conditions for them to reveal themselves spontaneously,” he said.
Many creatives also experience a sense of detachment or otherness, creative blocks, and feelings of impostor syndrome driven by the pursuit of perfection, all of which can significantly elevate stress levels.
“I have noticed that if I have a ‘creative block,’ microdosing or even doing a larger dose will help me return to my usual creative self. The process of ideation has to be generative, by definition, and psychedelics are primordial for linking up parts of my brain and allowing new ideas to burst out,” Molina says.
According to UCSF researcher Robin Carhart-Harris, whose pioneering fMRI study captured images of a healthy brain under the influence of a dose of LSD capable of inducing a trip, the psychedelic experience involves a breakdown of the conventional sense of self, replaced by a profound sense of connection with oneself, others, and the natural world. Commenting on the study, Carhart-Harris notes that “[i]n many ways, the brain in the LSD state resembles the state our brains were in when we were infants: free and unconstrained. This also makes sense when we consider the hyper-emotional and imaginative nature of an infant’s mind.”
Hector Pottie, creative director of Moving Brands, believes that “maybe psychedelics are something that would help create the right conditions for us to think wider, to think differently.”
Psychedelics have the potential to alleviate tension, silence our inner critics, foster receptivity, enhance our sense of connection, and ultimately unlock intricate visions. This could help us develop new ways to design things that are just right for the complexities of our world.
“The practice of mind-expanding activities such as the taking of psychoactive substances was, I think, fundamentally interwoven with the early development of man, helping to expand the boundaries of consciousness. The mind was opened to new visions by maximizing hyperconnectivity, and spreading further the network of simultaneous associations, inspiring higher levels of creativity and spirituality.”
A placebo-controlled study by Isabel Wießner and colleagues at the University of Campinas, Brazil, found that compared to placebo, LSD changed several creativity measurements pointing to three overall LSD-induced phenomena: a ‘pattern break’ reflected by increased novelty, surprise, originality, and semantic distances; decreased ‘organization,’ reflected by decreased utility, convergent thinking and, marginally, elaboration; and ‘meaning,’ reflected by increased symbolic thinking and ambiguity in the data-driven results.
Carly Dutch-Greene, founder of Studiodelic, says: “My psychedelic experiences have given me the ability to deeply attune to my intuition and because of that, I am able to transmute thoughts and ideas into visual designs in a really meaningful way.”
For designers, psychedelics open up a new realm of creative possibility, offering a unique tool for problem-solving and innovation. By altering perception and expanding consciousness, psychedelics may unlock creative insights that were previously inaccessible, paving the way for design solutions that contribute to regenerative futures.
It is essential to acknowledge the complexities and risks associated with psychedelics – they are not a panacea for creative problem-solving, and may not be the best choice for all creative thinkers. The ongoing dialogue within the design and psychedelic communities must carefully balance the potential creative insights with potential risks. While psychedelics may offer profound experiences and new avenues for exploration, we can’t overlook that they also carry legal, ethical, and health considerations, too.
Ultimately, the intersection of psychedelics and design carries both profound opportunities and formidable challenges. By proceeding with open yet critical minds, this intersection has the potential to expand the frontiers of humanity. With wisdom and care, this resurgence could catalyze a new creative wave that redesigns our innovations and how we innovate.
Join Psychedelics Today CEO Joe Moore at PSYCHEDELICS DESIGN conference on July 11. Joe’s keynote presentation, titled: The Great Reconnector: Designing Our Way Back Together with Psychedelics will explore modern alienation, and how psychedelics can serve as catalysts to bring people back together. Additional speakers include Peter Reitano of Gwella, Dennis Walker of Mycopreneur, and others. Join us to collectively reimagine the possibilities at the convergence of consciousness and creative endeavors. *Get 15% off your ticket with code JOE15.*
Have you been considering taking a psychedelic journey, but want to avoid a bad trip? Do yourself a favor: don’t make the most common psychedelic mistakes.
Understanding the most common pitfalls before you engage with a psychedelic substance can have a colossal impact on the outcome of your experience. Whether you’ve just learned about psychedelics, you’ve recently begun a journey of re-discovery, you’re working to include psychedelics in your career, or you’re a seasoned psychonaut, knowing the most often-made psychedelic mistakes could mean the difference of having a positive or negative – or even dangerous – outcome.
Ignoring Set and Setting
Psychedelics are powerful tools that can amplify your inner world. Imagine a mirror reflecting back everything you’re feeling – that’s what a psychedelic experience can be like. So, if you’re anxious going in, that anxiety can intensify and make it difficult to avoid a bad trip.
Similarly, a chaotic or unfamiliar environment can create a sense of unease and disrupt the flow of your experience.
Set (Mindset): Your emotional and psychological state profoundly affects your psychedelic journey. If you’re stressed, worried, or harbor unresolved conflicts, these can manifest and become overwhelming during the experience.
Setting (Environment): The physical and social space you choose can significantly impact your trip. Some settings are inherently riskier than others.
To avoid making this mistake, consider your internal state of being, and if it’s the best time to introduce psychedelics into your life. While some may argue that a period of difficulty is the best time to use psychedelics, take the time to evaluate whether dealing with what may arise will be a wise or productive choice right now – only you can answer this question, but don’t be afraid to share with someone you trust to help you evaluate it.
Think hard about how the setting could impact your overall experience, both positively and negatively. While fun, a noisy party can be disorienting. Unfamiliar surroundings and people could become frightening during the trip, too. Whereas a safe, comfortable space with trusted companions can foster a sense of security and allow you to surrender to the experience. Thoroughly assess what level of comfort and control feels right for you, and choose your setting wisely.
Lack of Planning and Research
Ingesting a substance without stopping to understand the substance and its effects is like taking a bad trip to a foreign land without a map. You might end up lost, confused, and potentially in danger.
While psychedelics are increasingly being mentioned or portrayed casually in movies and on social media, they’re powerful substances whose effects vary wildly depending on the individual, the substance, the dosing, and what they’re combined with. Without proper research, you could have a drastically different experience than you signed up for.
Treat your psychedelic journey (and yourself) with an appropriate level of respect. Research the substance you plan to use, including its typical effects, duration, and potential risks and contraindications. Get familiar with typical experiences by reading trip reports and articles, listening to podcasts (we have many to choose from), psychedelic books, and studies.
Begin forming a plan. Decide who you want and who is able to be present, or act as a “sitter.” Make sure this person has some psychedelic experience and can provide emotional support. If you also choose your setting mindfully and have a good understanding of what to expect (while being aware that the unexpected may still arise), you can enter the experience with confidence.
Neglecting Drug Testing
One of the most common mistakes in the modern era of psychedelic use is failure to test your substance. These days, it’s increasingly risky to assume that a substance is safe, pure, or that the substance is even what you believe it to be. Because a great deal of psychedelic use still occurs outside legal frameworks, where substances are tested and verified, there could be adulterants or molecules you are unfamiliar with on board. This potential comes with a high risk of unpredictable and dangerous side effects, ranging from discomfort to death.
Fortunately, there has never been greater access to substance testing for people who are concerned about the safety of their psychedelics and avoiding a bad trip.
At-home testing kits are widely available for a wide variety of substances, with the most common testing for accuracy and adulterants. Services like GetYourDrugsTested.com offer free mail-in drug analysis for free, groups like Dancesafe, Bunk Police, and Test Kit Plus offer kits for home use. Be sure to follow the instructions, and opt for a kit that checks for a wide variety of substances.
While purchasing a test kit is an added expense, strongly consider the cost of your health and well-being: if you can afford to ingest, you can afford to test.
Misjudging Your Dose
One of the most common mistakes we see: taking an arbitrary or high dose without realizing it or understanding its potency.
Dosing is highly variable from substance to substance, and highly individualized. The dose that works best for one person may be far too much, or too little for another. Taking too much without realizing it or anticipating the level of intensity can quickly result in an overwhelming and potentially harmful situation.
To avoid this potential for a bad trip, start with a low dose and increase gradually if necessary, tailoring it to your desired experience.
If it’s your first time taking a substance – or even a new batch of a familiar substance – the safest route is to begin with a low dose. It’s far easier to increase the dose if necessary than it is to deal with an overwhelming experience when it’s too late.
Consider your intention: do you want to have a more subtle, amplifying experience, or a mystical experience? How well do you know your body, and how do you typically react to mind-altering substances? What’s been said on message boards and within your local community about the substance recently? Exercising caution, asking yourself important questions, and doing some external research can help you avoid a bad trip.
Remember: you can always take more, but you can’t take less.
Learn the Rest of the Most Common Psychedelic Mistakes
Are you feeling prepared for your journey? Maybe don’t take off just yet. While this article includes crucial information to help you stop a bad trip before it starts, there’s more to learn.
We’ve packaged an extensive list of psychedelic pitfalls (and, most importantly, what to do instead) in a FREE course designed for wherever you’re at in your journey: 8 Common Psychedelic Mistakes.
In this self-guided digital class, you’ll learn:
Why you shouldn’t overlook set and setting.
How to plan and research thoroughly.
Why substance testing is crucial.
The value of knowing your dosing.
How to begin vetting your shaman or facilitator.
How to stay present during your trip.
The importance of choosing a support team.
How to be set up for success before and after your trip.
Join thousands of other psychedelic explorers and supporters in this FREE course so you can prepare for every psychedelic journey with knowledge and confidence. Students receive a complimentary printable guide and trip checklist, and free, unrestricted access to course materials for life.
Psychedelics and pregnancy is a highly controversial and often unspoken topic. But beyond the stigma, what does the research, law and culture say about mothers-to-be consuming psychedelics?
As she had done many times before, Leticia Pizano sat in ceremony with her medicine sisters waiting to feel the effects of the four grams of magic mushrooms that she had ingested. An experienced journeyer, Pizano found it strange that 45 minutes later she began vomiting, an effect she was unaccustomed to so early in the trip.
“The medicine just showed me that I needed to get that out of my body because I was with baby,” she told Psychedelics Today.
Still, the mushrooms took effect and led her on a trip she described as beautiful and empowering. The experience enabled her to form a deeper bond with her unborn child. “There’s just a different connection with her; almost non-human,” Pizano says of her daughter, six months old and the youngest of her twelve children at the time of this writing. After her daughter’s birth, Pizano brought her “medicine baby” to every plant medicine ceremony she attended.
For Pizano, participation in community-based ceremony was a motivating factor for her use of psychedelics, and her use during pregnancy was consistent with cultural norms — she is a member of the Sac and Fox and Kickapoo Tribal Nations, where partaking in ceremonies that include plant medicine sacraments occurs all through a person’s life. For most non-Indigenous people, such participation would be unusual and likely stigmatized, perhaps viewed as dangerous or irresponsible.
Yet, as psychedelics enter a more mainstream era, non-Indigenous birthing parents are relying on them as tools for wellness and even lifesaving measures to address treatment-resistant depression, anxiety, PTSD and addiction. Our current paradigms for substance use during pregnancy do not look at psychedelics with a thoughtful, critical lens. A new approach may be required to accommodate the myriad ways our culture has shifted towards turning to psychedelics over conventional treatments and medications for well-being.
Information, Misinformation, and Disinformation: Research and Public Health Information on Psychedelics and Pregnancy
Just as with other psychotropics like antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications, birthing parents and their healthcare providers need to evaluate existing information on psychedelics and pregnancy to make informed decisions about whether to continue using them during pregnancy. But seeking information on the web yields few results. And what little information does exist on the topic is often confusing, incomplete and misleadingly shaped by the War on Drugs. One study on pregnancy and LSD – the study most commonly cited online in reference to psychedelics and pregnancy – was published in 1970.
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists offers a blanket statement recommending the cessation of all marijuana use. Other psychedelics are similarly classified into a category of “substances that are commonly misused or abused,” a classification that bears the markings of bias and misinformation. According to the Global Drug Survey, we know that many psychedelic users ingest these substances in a safe, prepared and informed way, and according to longtime drug researcher David Nutt’s book, Drugs Without the Hot Air, psychedelics like mushrooms and LSD are not inherently addictive.
The March of Dimes, a research and advocacy group for mothers and babies, offers an unsourced page last edited in 2016 on their website that reads: “Street drugs are bad for you, and they’re bad for your baby.” The psychedelics included in this category are “ecstasy” and “other club drugs.” This broad categorization fails to account for the therapeutic applications of psychedelics. It also excludes critical factors like set, setting and dosage, all of which make a significant difference in a psychedelic user’s experience.
Mother to Baby provides more nuanced and specific information on psychedelics, but offer inconsistent guidance on the site. One article advises “Other street drugs, like cocaine, heroin, LSD, MDMA (ecstasy or Molly), and methamphetamine, also are harmful during pregnancy.” While the site’s Fact Sheets for both LSD and MDMA state that it is unknown whether the substances cause pregnancy-related problems.
These blanket prohibitions are largely based on the absence of—rather than the presence of—information about how a substance will impact a growing fetus. The medical research canon contains very little information about the effects of these substances during pregnancy, and substantial obstacles exist for this research to take place at all.
Due to ethical and safety concerns, “The research we do have on pregnancy in general—let alone pregnancy with psychedelics or plant medicine—is minimal because we don’t do research in pregnancy for the most part,” says Jessilyn Dolan, a registered nurse, herbalist, hemp farmer and former member of the Board of Directors for the American Cannabis Nurse Association.
Aside from ethical considerations, says Dolan, another challenge is measuring the long-term health impacts to the child of just one substance due to the enormity of confounding factors. For example, is a person who consumes cannabis edibles during pregnancy also consuming caffeine, alcohol, or prescription medication? How might these substances along with the birthing parent’s diet and lifestyle impact the long term health outcomes for the child? And how might the child’s environment, including exposure to toxins, food insecurity, poverty or traumatic life events, play a role in their health as well?
“When we look at pregnancy, breastfeeding and chest feeding and then doing longitudinal studies around kids, we have so many factors working against us to make that research really legitimized and standardized,” says Dolan.
Of the existing research on this topic, most is either outdated or based on small sample sizes. As legal restrictions on these substances shift, this may change. But information about the safety of ingesting substances during pregnancy is still scant, inconclusive and conflicting.
A study from 1968 on nine children exposed to LSD-25 in utero found elevated levels of chromosomal damage compared to a control group. However, none of these babies exhibited any birth defects. This study, with its very small sample size, has never been replicated. It also did not look at long-term outcomes for these children, rendering the results limited in value.
Similarly, an often cited and widely circulated study from 1994 compared 24 newborns exposed to cannabis to 20 who were not; results at 30 days showed that the cannabis-exposed babies actually scored higher on measures of alertness, were less irritable and had better reflexes. But this study, again with a small sample size and never replicated, did not take into consideration the many confounding factors that could have contributed to the results. For example, the study took place in Jamaica where cannabis use during pregnancy is a common practice and is not stigmatized. In addition, the heavier cannabis-using birthing parents were also more educated, more financially stable and had fewer other children to care for, all of which could have impacted outcomes for their babies.
More broadly, research on prenatal drug exposure is often mired in biases. In his book Drug Use for Grownups, Dr. Carl Hart details several problems associated with brain imaging research on people exposed prenatally to drugs. It is easier to get findings published, he says, when they are consistent with the widespread notion that drug use is bad for the developing fetus. In addition, Hart writes the findings are almost never replicated and researchers often ignore their own data in order to draw conclusions that reflect their own biases.
Still, experts in the field like Amanda Feilding, executive director of the Beckley Foundation, a UK-based NGO that funds psychedelic research and supports policy change, remain hopeful about the prospect for more research on the topic
“Scientific exploration could be carried out using animal models, or using naturalistic surveys to get answers from people who are already using or have already used psychedelics during their pregnancy,” Feilding says.
Keeping a Close Watch on Pregnant Bodies
Weighing risks of physical harm to the fetus against physical or mental health outcomes for the birthing parent is one framework for decision-making of this kind. But these calculations are not the only ones a birthing parent will have to assess. Most people who have experienced pregnancy will be familiar with an increase in monitoring by friends, family and even strangers who may feel entitled to comment on body changes, touch the pregnant person’s body without permission, or offer unsolicited advice or opinions on what the pregnant person ingests. Using psychedelics openly may create social stigma and isolation; the anxiety and stress that those conditions create may pose an additional risk for pregnant people.
Pregnant people are also monitored more closely by state and healthcare agencies. The American Academy of Pediatrics and American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends screening a pregnant person for drugs when they enter prenatal care. Twenty-five states and the District of Columbia require healthcare professionals to report even suspected drug use, and eight states require them to test for prenatal drug exposure if they suspect drug use. In 2014, Tennessee became the first state to pass a “fetal assault” law specifically allowing prosecution of pregnant women who use drugs, imposing penalties of up to 15 years in prison. The legislation was so controversial it was discontinued in 2016, but has been introduced several times since.
Monitoring for drug use, however, happens disproportionately along racial lines. While white and Black birthing parents have similar rates of any drug use during the prenatal period (though the substances used and patterns of use may differ slightly), an often-cited study from 1990 found that Black birthing parents were 10 times more likely than their white counterparts to be reported to health authorities for their drug use.
Some states are actively working to correct these disparities, with mixed results. A 2015 study of California hospitals that adopted a protocol to monitor all birthing parents for prenatal substance use found that it did not impact child protective services reporting disparities.
New York has taken a different approach. In a testimony to the New York City Council from 2020, David Hansell, Commissioner of the New York City Administration for Children’s Services, stated that the agency had actively discouraged health professionals from making reports to them about a child or parent who tests positive for a substance if there is no negative impact on their well-being and instead make a referral to a service agency. While this could theoretically help level out racial differences, the question remains whether the service agencies would be equipped and trained to adequately address the physical and mental health and other needs of a birthing parent using substances.
Vermont has also taken steps to eliminate the reporting requirement for healthcare practitioners treating birthing parents using substances. If a birthing parent tests positive only for marijuana, they are exempt from hospitals’ and healthcare professionals’ reporting requirements to the Department of Children and Families (although if the marijuana use is thought to endanger a child, it must be reported). The marijuana-only exemption in Vermont is informed by the lack of sufficient evidence suggesting that marijuana use during pregnancy is harmful. But similarly, there is a lack of sufficient evidence demonstrating that other psychedelics are harmful.
For birthing parents who do test positive for substances, their risk of losing custody is also informed by structural racism within the child welfare system. According to Dr. Kelly Sykes, a psychedelic integration therapist and child forensic psychologist, disparities exist between legal systems that govern custody and child protection systems. Allegations of abuse, neglect and drug abuse requiring court intervention exist in both systems. However, only parents within the child protection system—which disproportionately impacts poor single parents of color—can have their parental rights terminated and be permanently banned from having contact with their child. Further, all aspects of their parental judgement are subject to scrutiny; they may be randomly tested for substances, regardless of whether substance abuse was a part of their child protection case.
Community Support: Making Decisions on Psychedelics During Pregnancy
In this landscape of inconclusive, biased, and misleading information, how can birthing parents make informed decisions on this topic? And without information from peer-reviewed, evidence based research, what might drive someone to elect to use psychedelics all the same during their pregnancy?
For some birthing parents, the mental health benefits outweigh the potential risks.
“Psychedelics can reduce anxiety and depression, and can help people cope with dramatic changes in their lives,” said Feilding. “For those reasons, it’s certainly possible that psychedelics could be beneficial for expectant mothers struggling with prenatal depression or anxiety.”
Dolan, who has worked with pregnant people using cannabis to address treatment-resistant hyperemesis, a condition in pregnancy that creates severe and persistent nausea, frames the issue similarly. If anxiety and stress impede on the connection between parent and baby, research shows that “the relationship and connection is just as, if not more important than the little bit of pharmaceutical that’s going to pass through your breastmilk or pass through in utero to the child,” she says.
Being in a safe, supportive community to help weigh those decisions and process experiences in a nonjudgmental way can be very helpful. For someone like Pizano, this community is built into her everyday life. She grew up attending peyote ceremonies for occasions like baby namings, funerals or healing, and the wisdom she relies on comes from a long lineage of oral tradition, passed down by elders.
For those without such a cultural container, more options are emerging for pregnant people in need of support. A recent Psychedelics Today webinar explored the subject of psychedelics and parenthood with Dr. Glauber Loures de Assis, Associate Director of Chacruna Latinoamérica in Brazil. Groups like Plant Parenthood (which this writer founded) and Moms on Mushrooms also bring together parents to speak about topics that are so stigmatized, they’re rarely spoken about with others.
“Obviously safety is still a primary concern when it comes to kids and psychedelics, let alone issues like pregnancy,” says Andrew Rose, who co-facilitates Plant Parenthood. “But the riskiest thing is not talking about it at all. You can’t have good healthy community education without open, non-judgmental communication.”
Without a clear path for more research on the horizon, and with a landscape of confusing information to draw from, birthing parents will likely struggle to find simple answers. Individuals will still need to factor in their own level of vulnerability, which varies greatly based on race and other socioeconomic and cultural factors. Perhaps the answers we seek do not exist within a search engine, but in a patchwork of wisdom from Western medical research, ancestral knowledge and most importantly, our own inner healing intelligence.
What if there was a potentially life-saving drug that could relieve depression and PTSD but also, potentially, force frequent users to rush to the toilet every 15 minutes?
Well, it does exist. It’s ketamine, the most rapid-acting antidepressant in use today.
The drug has morphed in popular consciousness in just half a century from legal anesthetic, to dissociative dancefloor sniffing powder, to FDA-approved depression treatment, to addictive bladder-buster. Like heroin and cocaine, ketamine has much-needed medical uses – but it can be dangerous if abused. Rising problematic recreational use and calls from industry for greater professional accountability in therapeutic settings is showing that ketamine can be fun, restorative, and even addictive. In some cases, all at the same time.
The Ascension of Ketamine in Medicine and Culture
The commonly used anesthetic, in clinical use since 1970, was never placed under the strictest of legal controls like other drugs – partly since recreational ketamine use did not emerge until the 1990s and was rarely demonized. This enabled ketamine-assisted mental health treatment to become the first psychedelic available in therapy form, while in 2019 the FDA approved a ketamine nasal spray named Spravato for depression.
While its therapeutic usage has taken off, recreational consumption has seemingly followed suit.
“Recreational ketamine use has almost tripled over the last decade,” says Dr. Rayyan Zafar, a neuropsychopharmacologist at Imperial College’s Centre for Psychedelic Research.
In some cases, ketamine appears to be replacing alcohol, and that may broadly be positive for public health, Zafar adds. It’s not the only benefit: Ketamine-assisted therapy, “is a game changer for treatment resistant depression.”
To service the emerging therapeutic demand, ketamine clinics have opened all over the Western world over the last decade (there are a dozen in Manhattan alone).
And the party drug du jour – which along with other psychedelics is today replacing cocaine on dancefloors and at dinner parties – is making its way into pop culture: in ‘Ketflix and Chill’ memes, usage in films such as 2023’s Rotting in the Sun, and the so-called “ketamine chic” look. A song with a perhaps era-defining lyric, “Gimme ket, gimme ket,” recently made the top 20 in the German pop charts.
Naturally, plenty attest to its benefits.
“A ketamine meditation last year was one of the most profound and freeing experiences of my life,” says Bryan. “I only had awareness of peace.”
Others speak of ketamine use precluding suicidal ideations, spawning life changing realizations and facilitating mind-body connection.
For Sophie, ketamine has helped her “to zone in on what my soul purpose is” and spawned a long-overdue, radical career change. “It quietens the noise in the mind.”
Away from the dancehalls and art studios, there are reports of relief from depression, suicidality, PTSD and anxiety. (The author had a transformative, intentional experience with ketamine which helped him process the memories of a number of traumatic events). Many others, from model Amber Rose to average Canadians, tell of how ketamine saved their lives – wrenching them away from suicidality. “That’s the only thing that saved my life,” Rose said recently.
The Hidden Dangers of Ketamine Misuse
But the story of ketamine in 2024 isn’t all healing and happily ever afters for everyone who uses it. The scale of the harm from misuse has become so serious that hundreds on both sides of the Atlantic are undergoing therapy for addiction as ketamine support groups emerge for those who cannot afford rehab.
At a recent meeting in Oakland, California, attendees shared stories about the consequences of daily ketamine use: gastrointestinal pain, neuropathy, tingling in limbs and extremities, and leaky bladders. Tolerance to ketamine develops swiftly. In a short-sighted attempt to get around that, some people are “boofing” – rectally ingesting – several grams a day to get the hit that has become elusive nasally for them.
“Very little is known about how to recognize ketamine addiction,” says Brad Burge, founder of Integration Communications, a public relations agency serving the psychedelic industry, who was present at the well-attended meeting. He went because a friend of his recently died by suicide after more than two years struggling with pain likely caused by ketamine addiction.
Others are still living with the damage from misuse previously in their lives. Ryan was sniffing several grams a day at the height of his addiction.
“Robotripping and dissociation; it’s the ultimate escape. It was only when I moved back to my family home that I was saved.” Ketamine, at mid-to-high doses, he adds, brings about a more lucid and less warm experience than psilocybin or LSD. “It’s like getting lost in an emotional but placid sea of neuronal misfire.”
Ryan has lasting damage to his bladder as a result of ketamine overuse. So does Adam. “I did it every day for a few months years ago,” he says. “To this day I have ‘ket bladder’. I’ll go for a wee four times for every wee my mates have.”
The mental and spiritual strain of ketamine can range from hallucination persisting perception disorder, to being thrust unwillingly into “k-holes,” a dissociative ego-death realm.
“I felt like I was going to die,” Marie recalls. “I had seizure-like symptoms for about half an hour.” She and others did not know that many take ketamine purposefully to enter the k-hole for pleasure and enlightenment.
Growing Scrutiny On Take-Home Ketamine
Even lesser-known, in the enduring world of “just say no” public drug messaging, is the addictive potential of ketamine, “especially at-home ketamine use,” adds Burge.
The concerns over at-home ketamine use – for which a telehealth industry has sprung up to cater for, with slow release ketamine lozenges and prerecorded trip mixes – were blown wide open in late February when the former CEO of an at-home ketamine provider withdrew his support for at-home ketamine therapy after a female patient had a reported massive overdose and went into hypoxemic respiratory failure. It came after the death of Friends actor Matthew Perry, from “the acute effects of ketamine,” a few months earlier.
“After being at the forefront of at-home ketamine treatment, recent findings, like the case study of unintentional overdose via telehealth have led me to reevaluate,” Juan Pablo Cappello, the former CEO of Nue Life Health, tweeted. “I can no longer endorse ketamine’s prescription without stricter controls. Safety must come first.”
The Ethical Divide: Confronting Challenges in Therapeutic Practice
Some advocates of drug policy reform argue that reducing controls to accessing drugs like ketamine is the whole point – and that greater education and support from the companies purveying the lozenges should come before any knee-jerk legislative responses.
But with recreational and therapeutic use rising swiftly – bolstered by ads on social media and digital platforms from which at-home lozenges can easily be accessed – it seems like the emerging issues may only worsen, even if far more people experience ketamine’s benefits.
“There’s all sorts of ethical companies and practitioners who are doing the good work every day on the front lines, and we have to recognize that,” Cappello told Psychedelics Today in March. “We also have to be honest that it’s harder and harder for those ethical practitioners to make a living because of what unethical practitioners are doing every day in the trenches, which is slinging ketamine.”
In a letter advocating for standards that prioritize patient safety over profits – profits that seem to be fuelling the trajectory of the ketamine craze (both in the clinics and in the clubs) – Cappello proposed that those at the helm of industry have the power to safeguard the therapeutic potential of ketamine therapy for those in need.
“Do I think that it’s probably a good trade to take ketamine six times a year as opposed to taking an antidepressant every day? Yeah, that’s probably a good trade. But there’s a better trade, which is: let’s address the root cause of your depression, anxiety, or trauma once and for all.”
In 2024, the discourse around the effects of microdosing psychedelics is deeply polarized.
Positioned at opposite ends of the conversation are microdosing evangelists who swear by its benefits and skeptical scientists demanding more empirical evidence.
Ask whether it ‘works,’ and you’ll receive an emphatic ‘yes’ from believers or an all-but-certain ‘no’ from doubters, highlighting a divide that hinges largely on perspective.
Despite plenty of anecdotal reports attesting to the positive effect of microdosing – the practice of taking sub-perceptual or slightly sensory enhancing doses of psilocybin or LSD on a regular basis for wellbeing, to improve focus or diminish depression – the lack of faith is traditionally rooted in an absence of robust science proving its efficacy. But that could all soon change.
MindBio’s Latest Trial Results: Breakthrough or Overreach?
“We are delighted to share that MB22001 showed rapid and statistically significant improvements with 60% reduction in depressive symptoms and 53% of patients experiencing complete remission from depression,” said Justin Hanka, Chief Executive Officer of MindBio Therapeutics. “These Phase 2 trial results are transformative for the company as it takes its next steps into late-stage pharma.”
This should all be taken with a grain of salt. The sensationalist manner Mindbio announced the latest microdosing results – which have not yet been released in a scientific paper – provoked the ire of some commentators.
Exploring Microdosing’s Effect on Mental Health
But for the many who have benefitted from the effects of microdosing, it’s only a matter of time before the data corroborates their experiences. I decided to ask my Instagram friends about their experiences.
“I was going through a really hard period at home,” one microdoser said. “I felt almost like the mushrooms held me: Everything softened and I felt safe and held. And, after a while, I felt fine without microdosing and didn’t need it anymore.”
“I was coming off antidepressants and had a horrendous time,” she said. “The mushrooms were my savior. They took away feelings of negativity and made me feel lighter and more at peace.”
Scientific Scrutiny: Measuring the ‘Real’ Effects of Microdosing
Such reports, however, will do little to convince the doubters. This skepticism is compounded by the trend of bots marauding social media conversations about psychedelics, relentlessly regurgitating pro-microdosing talking points and incessantly hawking magic mushroom capsules. The volume of posts, especially on X, has contributed to claims from psychedelics researchers that microdosing is “ridiculously overhyped and predatory.”
Other research – and numerous press reports, which began in 2015 when microdosing first entered cultural consciousness – presents the microdose as a versatile tool for increasing contentment effect and improving cognition.
“As of right now, there are still no published clinical trials investigating microdosing on people diagnosed with mental health issues, so their efficacy as a clinical treatment is unknown,” said Manesh Grin, a postdoctoral psychedelic neuroscientist, University of California, San Francisco.
The survey-based papers “generally don’t measure placebo or expectation effects and aren’t the most reliable,” he added, while “in laboratory studies, where they compare against a control group, people do often experience improvements in mood, anxiety, and other measures but so do the people who get an inert placebo and thought they got a microdose.”
The main challenge of the clinical microdosing studies undertaken so far is that most did not observe patients for any significant period – in which time a microdosing protocol might take effect. Perhaps the most robust microdosing study to date, conducted with LSD in New Zealand by University of Auckland associate professor Dr. Suresh Muthukumaraswamy on 14 patients over six weeks, suggests some benefits that are greater than placebo.
“My sense is that, if there are real effects, they are likely particularly for people who are struggling,” added Girn. “Whether they help people who are already healthy and high functioning is more of an open question, but the data so far suggests the effects might only be modest and largely placebo in most cases.”
Some are less enthusiastic about microdosing’s possible efficacy as they believe larger macrodoses, taken less often, are more effective and that there are emerging business interests behind the dubious bots – and others – who seem to want to sell folks a lifetime of pills.
“High-dose psychotherapy (is) about having this transformative experience that one learns from, whereas microdosing psychedelics would be … a traditional psychiatric medicine model,” psychedelic scientist Dr Matthew Johnson tweeted.
“Common for microdosing fans to say: any skeptic hasn’t tried it. Not true,” he said in another tweet last year. “I’ve know [sic] many people (including a number of scientists) who have taken plenty of psychedelics & are believers in high dose therapeutics, who have tried microdosing a bunch and say, meh, not convinced.”
But microdose advocates still maintain that smaller, more regular doses will be more practical, and cheaper, for most people than the hair-raising visionary trips scientists propel themselves into.
Hanka says his company’s data – from a new study led by Muthukumaraswamy – is promising, but that ultimately the jury is still out.
“I’d really like to know for sure that these drugs work better than antidepressants with lower side effects and that is exactly what we are trying to find out,” he said. “I am open minded and will be completely led by the data as we step through clinical trials.”
Studying the effects of a sub-perceptual medicine while calculating the impact of brain power may always be tricky, and the success of any microdose, self-help regime comes down to the intentions and discipline of the microdoser. But I don’t think my Instagram friends are tripping. They didn’t take large doses after all.
Interested in doing your own self-exploration? Consider our Microdosing Masterclass, your complete guide to understanding and integrating the best practices for effective microdosing.
Legal psychedelics frameworks in the U.S. and abroad are rapidly shifting thanks to growing recognition of their transformative benefits. Where are psychedelics legal currently, and what can we expect around legal reform in the near future?
As of April 2024, dozens of U.S. cities have deprioritized criminal law enforcement for possessing psychedelics, while two states have passed sweeping regulated adult-use bills. Globally, Australia became the first country to codify legal psychedelic therapy. And Jamaica leads the world’s commercial psychedelics sector, fully embracing psilocybin use, sales, and cultivation.
Psychedelics legalization is occurring in various forms around the globe. The bottom line? Adults don’t have to look far for places that allow entheogens for personal or therapeutic use.
**Disclaimer: This article speaks to the legality of possession and use of psychedelics for personal, therapeutic, and ceremonial use, and largely, does not reference legal possession and production for research purposes. Be advised: drug laws change rapidly and frequently. This article is not a legal resource and may not be 100% up-to-date. Always check the latest local, state, and federal laws before engaging in psychedelics use in the U.S. and abroad.Have we missed anything in this article? Reach out to our team at editor@psychedelicstoday.com with your input.
Defining Legal Psychedelics
‘Legal psychedelics’ is an incredibly broad term. People use it interchangeably with ‘decriminalization,’ ‘deprioritization,’ and ‘regulated use.’ These terms integrate and sometimes overlap. But they also hold distinct implications worth defining.
Fully legal psychedelicsrefer to hallucinogenic substances that adults can use, produce, and sell because no local, state, or federal law prohibits it. Jamaica has one of the most robust legal psychedelics industries, but it only applies to psilocybin-bearing mushrooms.
Regulated psychedelics accessrefers to places with targeted legalization bills that allow adults to purchase and use these compounds for specific purposes, such as therapeutic treatment or research. Regulated access can also include state-level bills that enable limited psychedelic use under professional guidance, such as in Oregon and Colorado. However, state-level bills do not supersede federal legislation.
Decriminalization involves reducing or eliminating criminal penalties associated with possessing or using psychedelics for personal reasons. Decriminalization codifies psychedelic use as a non-criminal offense. It does not legalize production, sale, or distribution.
Deprioritization means that local law enforcement agencies decide to treat psychedelic possession offenses as their lowest priority. However, the substances remain illegal under the law, and offenders could still face penalties from state and federal prosecutors.
Where are Psychedelics Legal in the U.S.?
Psychedelics are not fully legal anywhere in the United States. Classic psychedelics, like psilocybin mushrooms, LSD, and DMT are Schedule I controlled substances. MDMA, mescaline, bufotenine, ibogaine, and several psychedelic analog compounds fall under the DEA’s Schedule I designation as well.
However, Oregon and Colorado recently legalized psilocybin mushrooms for adult use under professional supervision. These legal psychedelic states created regulated access industries – as of this writing, Oregon is ahead of Colorado – but do not allow retail sales or public consumption.
Oregon’s Legal Psychedelics Framework
Oregon became the first state to create a paradigm for the legalization of psychedelics after it passed Measure 109, the Oregon Psilocybin Services Act, in November 2020. The Act gave the Oregon Health Authority (OHA) two years to regulate psilocybin production, transportation, delivery, sale, purchase, and establish a psilocybin services industry through licensed healing centers.
In June 2023, the first healing center opened its doors, where Oregon adults over 21 could purchase and ingest psilocybin mushrooms in a supervised environment. State-certified facilitators must be present during the entire experience. Adults do not need a referral or a diagnosis to participate.
Who can become a licensed psilocybin service facilitator in Oregon?
People often assume Oregon’s psychedelic facilitators must be mental health professionals. However, any Oregon resident over 21 with a high school diploma can become a psilocybin facilitator if they complete the state-sponsored training program, pass an exam and background check, and pay a license application and renewal fee.
Oregon’s psilocybin services program did not legalize psychedelic therapy, where licensed practitioners offer psychotherapy services throughout the journey. Thus, facilitators cannot provide professional counseling during psilocybin sessions. Therapists who want to participate in Oregon’s psilocybin program can offer pre- and post-journey counseling.
Measure 109 only legalized psilocybin mushrooms in Oregon. And only in a licensed and regulated environment.
Decriminalization in Oregon
However, Oregon’s Measure 110 reduced criminal penalties and expanded addiction treatment services for various illicit drugs, including LSD, psilocybin and psilocin, methadone, oxycodone, heroin, MDMA, cocaine, and methamphetamine. These compounds remain illegal, but they are decriminalized – for now, anyway. In February 2024, the Oregon Senate passed House Bill 4002, aiming to reverse the decriminalization policy, introducing up to six months in jail for possessing small amounts of psychedelics. The bipartisan bill now awaits Governor Tina Kotek’s review. As of this writing, Gov. Kotek has not indicated whether she will sign it.
Colorado’s Legal Psychedelics Framework
Two years after Oregon’s landmark Psilocybin Services Act, Colorado voted for Proposition 122, the Decriminalization and Regulated Access Program for Certain Psychedelic Plants and Fungi Initiative. Prop 122 made Colorado the second U.S. state to affirm regulated access to legal psychedelics.
Proposition 122 directed Colorado’s Department of Regulatory Agencies to establish a Regulated Natural Medicine Access Program where licensed healing centers will administer supervised natural medicine services. The Department may start accepting facilitator applications by the end of 2024, with healing centers expected to open in early 2025.
The measure also decriminalized personal use and possession of natural medicines but did not provide a framework for retail sales.
Which psychedelics are legal in Colorado?
Colorado’s Proposition 122 defines the term “natural medicine” to initially include only psilocybin and psilocin. However, on June 1, 2026, the term may be expanded to incorporate ibogaine, DMT, and mescaline (excluding peyote) if the Natural Medicine Advisory Board recommends it. Additionally, Proposition 122 decriminalized the possession, growth, and transport of these natural psychedelics for adults age 21 and older.
Decriminalization in Colorado
Colorado’s Prop 122 included a provision for decriminalizing psychedelics. The provision affirms that “possessing, storing, using, processing, transporting, purchasing, obtaining, and ingesting natural medicine for personal use, or giving away natural medicine for personal use without remuneration” is not an offense under state law or the laws of any Colorado locality. It allows Colorado adults to grow natural plant psychedelics and fungi so long as they remain in the person’s private home and are secured from access by minors.
However, Colorado’s lawmakers recently revised the bill, placing $100 penalties on public consumption and $1,000 fines on people who violate the private property requirement.
Where in the U.S. are Psychedelics Decriminalized?
As of April 2024, Oregon and Colorado are the only states to enact statutes decriminalizing psychedelics use, possession, or cultivation. However, more than two dozen U.S. cities have deprioritized criminal enforcement of psychedelic offenses.
Which U.S. Cities Have Deprioritized Enforcing Criminal Penalties for Psychedelic Use?
Twenty-four cities, primarily in Massachusetts, California, and Michigan, have reduced psychedelics offenses to the lowest possible law enforcement priority. Most resolutions incorporate entheogenic plants and fungi, including psilocybin mushrooms, mescaline (except peyote), and ayahuasca. Most reforms exclude synthetic compounds like LSD, MDMA, and ketamine.
The current list of municipalities that have reduced psychedelic offenses includes:
1. Seattle, WA 2. Port Townsend, WA 3. Berkeley, CA 4. San Francisco, CA 5. Santa Cruz, CA 6. Oakland, CA 7. Eureka, CA 8. Arcata, CA 9. Denver, CO 10. Ann Arbor, MI 11. Detroit, MI 12. Hazel Park, MI 13. Ferndale, MI 14. Ypsilanti, MI 15. Portland, ME 16. Minneapolis, MN 17. Cambridge, MA 18. Somerville, MA 19. Northampton, MA 20. Easthampton, MA 21. Salem, MA 22. Amherst, MA 23. Provincetown, MA 24. Washington, DC
Where Are Psychedelics Legal Around the World?
Legal psychedelics only exist in a handful of places, including Jamaica, Brazil, Nepal, Samoa, and the British Virgin Islands. However, several countries allow psychedelic use and possession through decriminalization and spiritual freedom measures.
Austria Austria decriminalized personal possession of psilocybin in 2016 and generally avoids criminal penalties as its first drug enforcement option. However, all psychedelics are still illegal under federal law in Austria.
Croatia Croatia decriminalized drug use in small quantities, including psychedelics. However, psychedelics remain illegal overall in the nation. Offenders caught possessing psychedelics in Croatia may face mandatory rehab, community services, or a fine of €2,680.
The Czech Republic The Czech Republic’s criminal code does not treat drug use as an offense. Possessing small quantities of drugs, including psychedelics, for personal purposes is punishable by a fine.
Costa Rica Costa Rica does not list Ayahuasca as a controlled substance and broadly accepts its cultural use. This acceptance allows ayahuasca retreat centers to operate without fear of prosecution throughout the country. Additionally, Costa Rica’s societal norms accept psilocybin use in traditional and spiritual contexts, although psilocybin mushrooms are not explicitly legal.
Bahamas The Bahamas legally allows the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, as they are not classified as a “dangerous drug” by the government. The 1971 UN Convention technically prohibits the sale of all illicit drugs in the Bahamas. However, psilocybin retreats and ibogaine clinics are prevalent throughout.
Brazil People can readily find ayahuasca and mushroom retreats in Brazil and likely won’t face criminal penalties for possession or use. Neither are commercially available, and the active compounds they contain are banned. However, Brazil legalized the ayahuasca plant for spiritual use in 1968. And psilocybin mushrooms do not fall on the country’s list of prohibited substances.
British Virgin Islands The British Virgin Islands permit the legal use and possession of psilocybin mushrooms. Selling them remains illegal. However, visitors and locals report that mushrooms are available for discreet purchase at public events.
Jamaica Jamaica has become the world leader in the legal psychedelics industry. The Jamaican government actively promotes the nation as a destination for researching, developing, and exporting psilocybin products. It has set interim protocols for supporting cultivation and processing. Jamaica is also a global hub for psychedelic retreats and retail sales.
Mexico Psilocybin mushrooms are Schedule I in Mexico. However, Indigenous communities openly use psilocybin mushrooms in traditional healing rituals, and several psychedelic retreat centers operate openly in Mexico. That’s because Article 195 of the Penal Code says Mexico’s Federal Public Ministry will not prosecute people who possess narcotics for personal medical treatment or who have peyote or hallucinogenic mushrooms intended for traditional ceremonies.
Netherlands Magic truffles are legal in the Netherlands and available for sale in smart shops throughout Amsterdam. Additionally, psychedelics retreat centers operate legally in the nation, serving various entheogenic plants. However, possessing, selling, and using traditional psilocybin mushrooms remains illegal in the Netherlands. Additionally, psilocin, mescaline, and DMT extracts are banned, even for religious use.
Nepal Psilocybin mushrooms are unscheduled in Nepal, meaning the government does not regulate or criminally prosecute their use, possession, sale, or distribution. According to local producers, psilocybin mushrooms have a significant cultural presence in the country, and adults regularly consume the fungi for spiritual purposes.
Ecuador In Ecuador, certain medicinal plants and derivatives, including San Pedro and ayahuasca are legally permitted in certain ceremonial contexts. Retreats serving foreigners are common throughout the country.
Portugal Portugal enacted Law 20/2000 decriminalizing the personal possession of all illicit drugs, including psychedelics. Adult use of psychedelics is now an administrative offense rather than a criminal act in Portugal. At worst, offenders may have to surrender their stash and engage in community service.
Samoa Psilocybin mushrooms are legal in Samoa for personal use, possession, cultivation, and transport because they do not appear in the nation’s drug laws. Psilocybin mushrooms grow in natural settings and are called “Pulouaitu.”
Spain Law enforcement in Spain typically does not criminally prosecute adults for possessing or using psychedelics like psilocybin. However, localities retain the authority to establish their own regulations.
Where is Psychedelic Therapy Legal Around the World?
Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy is a brand-new modality in the West. Australia is the only country to codify this medical protocol into law.
MDMA and Psilocybin for PTSD and Depression in Australia
On February 3rd, 2023, Australia became the first country to legalize psychedelic therapy. The nation’s Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) declared that psychiatrists could prescribe MDMA or psilocybin to manage PTSD and treatment-resistant depression. In September 2024, the first psychedelic therapy center, Clarion Clinics, opened its doors, charging patients $24,000 for a nine-month protocol.
Ketamine Therapy in the U.S. and Around the World
Ketamine therapy is legal throughout the United States due to its FDA-approval status. Canada, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, and several other nations allow ketamine for “off-label” medical and therapeutic use as well.
Ketamine is not a classic psychedelic compound. However, it does elicit dissociative psychedelic effects and a reported rapid mood boost through its NMDA receptor action. Most clinicians prescribe or administer ketamine as an off-label drug in IV, tablet, or nasal spray form for various mental health concerns, including treatment-resistent depression, chronic pain management, PTSD, severe anxiety disorder, suicidality, OCD, and substance abuse issues.
Treatment does not require that patients seek professional mental health support. However, ketamine-assisted psychotherapy can help people experience more enduring benefits compared to receiving the medicine alone.
MDMA Therapy in the U.S.: A Look Ahead
In December 2023, the nonprofit Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) submitted a new drug application for MDMA-assisted therapy. The application currently sits with the FDA for review, with potential approval as soon as August 2024. If approved, the DEA must reschedule the compound from Schedule I within 90 days. About half of the states are expected to follow federal recommendations. The other half must take legislative action to change their drug laws before patients can access the treatment.
Regardless of the red tape ahead, the U.S. could soon become the second nation to legalize psychedelic therapy, providing life-saving medicine to the most vulnerable populations.
Feeling like you’ve only begun to scratch the surface? Learn more about legal psychedelic considerations and how they may impact your practice in our course, Navigating Psychedelics for Clinicians and Wellness Practitioners. Classes begin May 8. Seats are limited, so don’t delay.
Much like the psychedelic experience itself, the idea of ‘spaceholding’ or ‘holding space’ can strike some as a nebulous concept.
The term is largely synonymous with psychedelic facilitation or ceremony leading. When executed poorly, or not considered at all, the consequences can be severe for the recipient.
Why Holding Space Matters
When the psychedelic kicks in – whether it be psilocybin, ayahuasca, or 5-MeO-DMT – the individual may arrive at a fork in the road where the ego is invited to dissolve. How they navigate this juncture is key to the quality of the experience and managing their passage towards bliss is one of the key areas where a space holder can earn their salt.
With a safe container created for exploration and tools at hand, including mantras, breathing techniques, and attentive coaching, the journeyer is empowered to surrender gracefully through the depths of consciousness (and, possibly, dimensions). In that moment of ego death – should it occur during the trip – the body can experience long overdue relief from near perpetual fight or flight through a state of rest and digestion which promotes healing.
But in a chaotic setting, left unaided without guidance, travelers may find themselves engulfed in waves of fear and discomfort, veering into distress and confusion and finding elusive the state of simply being, without worries.
The Crucial Role of the Space Holder
The best space holders are beacons of guidance and support in the ethereal, mind-manifesting kaleidoscopic landscapes of a psychedelic journey. Their influence can determine the trip’s trajectory, and the best space holders remain discrete until they are called upon, possessing an intuitive sense of when greater direct presence is necessary.
In the uncharted territory of the psychedelic ’20s, as every man and his dog decides to serve toad venom and ayahuasca, the psychedelic community is increasingly emphasizing the need for well-trained facilitators. Initiatives and training programs like Navigating Psychedelics: For Clinicians and Wellness Practitioners aim to help equip those holding space with the skills to compassionately and adeptly facilitate psychedelic experiences for individuals and groups.
“Psychedelic therapy can bring about intense psychological, emotional, and physical experiences,” writes Michelle Anne Hobart, a spiritual emergence coach. It is thus crucial for space holders to be well-versed in trauma-informed practices to mitigate any issues that may arise, remaining calm, supportive and empathetic for their clients.
Creating Internal Space Through Set and Setting
In a sense, the phrase ‘space holder’ is metaphoric and refers to the creation of an internal sanctuary for the journeyer, through the adept management of their immediate external reality. Common pitfalls of flawed space holders can include a propensity for touch that may lead to intrusive physical contact, or encouraging excessively high doses. These missteps can all take the participant deeper into the experience than they are comfortable with, and risk energetic transference between the space holder and the participant.
Space holders must exhibit sensitivity and awareness, not only in setting the space optimally with appropriate music, smells, and vibes, but also in witnessing, guiding, and comforting individuals throughout their journey.
Otherwise, ceremonies intended to bring about transmutation and recalibration can become potentially dangerous and risk re-wounding participants who turned up to heal. “The ones who are in the role of holding vigil must be as attuned as the survivors of trauma and spiritual emergency themselves have had to be,” adds Hobart.
Maintaining Personal Integrity
The participant has effectively given the space holder permission to witness them in a highly suggestible, hyperplastic and defenseless state. “You’re really putting yourself in someone else’s hands in a very, very vulnerable way, even if you’re an experienced psychonaut,” says Dr. Ido Cohen, a psychedelic facilitator and the founder of the Integration Circle.
The space holder may wish to remain as invisible as possible until they are called upon. It can be tricky to know when greater presence is required, and when to simply allow the profound journey of self-discovery and transformation to happen.
An often-overlooked element of space holding is the ability to be completely present with a participant in their process without judgment or having a desire to give advice, according to Victoria Wueschner, president of F.I.V.E. (5-MeO-DMT Information & Vital Education). Deep in the throes of a visionary psychedelic journey, emotions and words shared may inadvertently relate to the space holder, but it is imperative they do not take it personally and instead remain in a state of compassionate detachment.
“When facilitators step into the role of being a space holder, they commit to giving their full attention and presence to the participant by actively listening with compassion, free of personal ego or motive,” says Wueschner.
‘Let the Unfolding Experience Be the Guide’
If somebody feels unsafe, rushed, or judged, it is more likely that negative thoughts and unresolved memories can arise in an overwhelming fashion. The space holder ideally lifts the weight from the participant’s shoulders, and when the path is clear, a protective bubble is created to block distractions and allow greater space for them to dive deep into their psyches and transform their inner worlds. The space holder is their unobtrusive cheerleader.
The key principles of the Zendo Project, which provides harm reduction education and psychedelic peer support services, are trusting, letting go, being open, breathing and surrendering. The organization advises space holders to be calm, meditative presences of acceptance, care, and compassion.
“Promote feelings of trust and security,” they say on their website. “Let the person’s unfolding experience be the guide. Don’t try to get ahead of the process. Explore distressing issues as they emerge, but simply being with the person can provide support.”
Space Holding Begins Before the Space Opens (and Continues After It Closes)
Another aspect of space holding that can be neglected is the process of screening individuals to ascertain whether a particular psychedelic experience is suited for their needs, and then helping people prepare. If a space holder does not, at a minimum, offer to conduct a call before the journey day and provide some preparation exercises – such as intention-setting, journalling or meditation – then that should ring alarm bells.
Space holding doesn’t end when the effect of the psychedelic wears off. A key component of the healing process is the integration – a period which can consist of check-in calls, talk therapy, and the provision of a personalized schedule of activities such as spending time in nature and avoiding certain foods.
But, ultimately, everything is rooted in a trusting bond between the space holder and the patient or client, says Dr. David Rabin, a psychiatrist and neuroscientist who co-founded Apollo Neuroscience.
“Holding space always begins with a safe setting, rooted in trust, that helps to create the fertile ground for the seed of healing to grow. Without the trust and safety of the therapeutic alliance, the healing process can be completely shut down.”
While psychoactive substances like psilocybin and MDMA have taken the spotlight as frontrunners in psychedelic-assisted therapy, the growing impact of cannabis in combating treatment-resistant trauma is becoming undeniable.
Despite Western science largely overlooking the psychedelic potential of cannabis, recent insights from a literature review in the Journal of Psychopharmacology suggest that high doses of THC may indeed induce psychedelic effects.
However, the ongoing industry discourse begs the question: Is cannabis truly a psychedelic? Its therapeutic potential and current application in the therapy field suggest that it is indeed.
Cannabis in Cracking Open Dissociation
Have you ever embarked on a psychedelic experience, anxiously anticipating the arrival of breathing objects and fractal patterns, only to find your visual reality unchanged? Cannabis could be key to unlocking the desired psychedelic effect.
According to psychotherapist and MAPS phase 2 clinical investigator, Saj Razvi, this phenomenon of lackluster psychedelic experiences could be directly attributed to “dissociation.”
“Generally, mental health is not very good at realizing dissociation — tracking it, working with it,” said Razvi, founder and director of education at the Psychedelic Somatic Institute. “A major component of what we call ‘treatment resistance’ is dissociation.”
In the case of those who don’t feel the anticipated effects of a psychedelic, it’s likely the substance is butting up against dissociation within an individual’s system, thereby suppressing the psychedelic experience.
“This means that we’re secreting endogenous opioids to physically, emotionally, and psychologically numb us out,” he told Psychedelics Today.
Enter cannabis. The plant, Razvi says, seems to work with dissociation faster than any other medicine he has encountered.
Razvi’s clinical work conducted in Amsterdam sheds further light on the role of cannabis in addressing non-responsiveness to classical psychedelics like psilocybin. A percentage of individuals showed no significant response to psilocybin, reporting only subtle perceptual shifts (if anything at all). During their rest period, before their next psilocybin session, Razvi offered participants the opportunity to explore cannabis.
“What we observed was that individuals who were non-responders to psilocybin exhibited a response to cannabis, and what the cannabis targeted was their dissociation.”
Remarkably, after three sessions of cannabis work, participants experienced such a reduction in dissociation that their subsequent psilocybin experiences were drastically different.
“Cannabis is one of the most grossly underestimated and misunderstood medicines in the psychedelic medicine cabinet,’” Micah Stover, a somatic psychedelic therapist trained under Razvi’s PSIP model, told Psychedelics Today.
“When we talk about psychedelic therapy, we emphasize the importance of set and setting. If we’re not in an optimal set and setting, we often fail to consider it as such. However, when we use (cannabis) within that context, our experience can be wildly impactful,” Stover said.
Is Cannabis Truly Psychedelic? Definitions Matter
But the question remains: despite the potential for cannabis to assist in sparking psychedelic experiences with classic entheogens, is it truly a psychedelic itself?
The recent Journal of Psychopharmacology review concluded that the dosage, set, and settings used within cannabis trials conducted so far may not have been conducive to eliciting psychedelic-like experiences, indicating a need for further research.
On the other hand, evidence has indicated that high doses of THC can lead to mystical-type experiences, one of the key clinical features of classical psychedelics.
According to Razvi, the answer to the question all depends on how you define “psychedelic.”
“In my definition of it, yes. It’s taking us to primary consciousness, it’s giving us a different experience of primary consciousness than classic psychedelics, but it is a psychedelic in that it really shifts where we’re operating from.”
So, what sets cannabis apart from other psychoactive substances and how do its effects on the mind and body differ?
With classic tryptamines, transpersonal experiences are typically felt, like “unity consciousness, and existential reconciliation,” Razvi said. Unlike tryptamines, MDMA and cannabis typically do not induce the same level of transpersonal consciousness.
“Both of those medicines (MDMA and cannabis) are so useful for working with trauma because they’re not transpersonal in nature. They’re very personal, they don’t challenge the fundamental you,” he said.
Another trait that MDMA and cannabis share with psychedelics is their ability to heighten body awareness and pre-sensate experiences.
“With that sensate reality of our bodies, people notice things at very detailed levels that they don’t normally notice at all,” Razvi told Psychedelics Today.
Another notable ability of cannabis, he says, is how it disrupts executive function.
“Your capacity to tell a story, your mind’s ability to work in any kind of normal way gets thoroughly disrupted by cannabis. I think it’s one of the reasons why cannabis is so distrusted in mental health — we can’t do traditional talk therapy on it.”
Not only is it helpful to incorporate somatic modalities in cannabis work, it’s necessary, Razvi says. The gift of cannabis is, “it places us in the arena where somatic therapies work.”
Opening Doors to Transpersonal States
Could cannabis then be a valuable entry point to non-ordinary, psychedelic states? Razvi suggests it’s a good idea to reclaim the foundation of your physical being first.
“If your nervous system exists in a state of compromise, meaning there’s a lot of dissociation in your system, you can do transpersonal work, but you’re doing it from a position of a compromised foundation.”
He suggests that individuals dealing with pre-personal biological levels of trauma and compromise in their system may find resolution for those layers working with less transpersonal medicines, such as cannabis and MDMA.
“Ideally, resolve that layer, then move on to more transpersonal experiences,” he says.
“Something I have observed in clients is how they assimilate new ideas and upgrade their belief systems following a psilocybin experience, which can be beneficial as their old beliefs might have become ineffective,” Stover added.
“However, there’s often a disconnect between their newfound ideas and their physical bodies. So, body and spirit are in different places and this is why somatic work is so hugely important. Cannabis can be a powerful ally — when facilitated in the right process — to sync body and mind.”
The Ritual Use of Cannabis
Turning toward the wisdom of communities who have integrated cannabis within their cultural frameworks: for a rural community in Catalonia called Wonderland (or País de las Maravillas), cannabis has long been woven into ritual contexts.
Research on the ritualistic use of cannabis concluded that the rituals “can even generate beneficial effects for the individual as well as the community by strengthening bonds between community members,” and, “are seen as spiritual or religious practices, as well as forms of self-care and community-care, rather than involving drug dependence or addiction.”
Ultimately, whether within communal or scientific settings, context matters and, much like a classical psychedelic, the outcome of cannabis experiences is highly dependent on the nature in which they are consumed.
